In this paper we provide a description of Wied's black tufted-ear marmoset, or the Southern Bahian marmoset, Callithrix kuhlii Coimbra-Filho, 1985, from the Atlantic forest of southern Bahia in Brazil. It was first recorded by Prinz Maximilian zu Wied-Neuwied during his travels in 1815–1816. Its validity was questioned by Hershkovitz (1977, Living New World Monkeys [Platyrrhini], Chicago University Press, Chicago), who considered it a hybrid of two closely related marmosets, C. penicillata and C. geoffroyi. Vivo (1991, Taxonomia de Callithrix Erxleben 1777 [Callitrichidae, Primates], Fundação Biodiversitas, Belo Horizonte), on the other hand, while demonstrating it was not a hybrid, argued that it was merely a dark variant of C. penicillata. We discuss a number of aspects concerning the taxonomic history of the forms penicillata, jordani, and kuhlii and the validity of the form kuhlii, examining the supposition that it may be a hybrid, besides the evidence concerning vocalizations, morphology, pelage, and ecology. We also discuss the use of the taxonomic category of subspecies to classify the different forms of the Atlantic forest marmosets, and the circumstances prevailing for the correct assignation of the authorship of the name kuhlii. We conclude that Callithrix kuhlii is a distinct and valid taxon, today restricted to the Atlantic forest between the Rio de Contas and Rio Jequitinhonha in southern Bahia, Brazil.

Endemic to the Atlantic forest of the Brazilian states of Sergipe and Bahia, Callicebus coimbrai survives in a highly fragmented landscape characterized by small remnants of forest in a matrix of plantations and pasture. First described only seven years ago, the species is still poorly known and, until the present study, had been recorded from only fifteen sites in Sergipe, in fragments of no less than 40 ha. Here, we report on a survey of the presumed range of the species in Sergipe, with the primary aims of identifying remnant populations and evaluating the influence of factors, such as fragment size, on survival. Populations of C. coimbrai were recorded through either sightings or response to playbacks of vocalizations at 30 of 147 sites surveyed (including 15 confirmed previously), and consistent reports from local residents were obtained at a further 46 localities. Six of the confirmed fragments were less than 20 ha, including one of only 3 ha. This indicates that the species is relatively tolerant of habitat fragmentation, and is able to survive in isolated forests of small size. Together with the growing number of known (and potential) populations, this tolerance is a positive factor for the long-term conservation of the species. However, based on the results of this survey, estimates of the total area of forest occupied by the species, and numbers remaining in the wild are only 100–150 km² and 500–1,000 individuals, respectively. Clearly, this situation requires urgent measures, including the implementation of protected areas and provisions for metapopulation management.

From October 2004 to September 2005, I conducted a study on the behavioral ecology of the rare and endangered Río Mayo titi monkey (Callicebus oenanthe) in a fragmented premontane tropical forest of the Alto Mayo, near the town of Moyobamba, in northern Peru. This is the first such field study on this species. The study group consisted of an adult male, an adult female, and two offspring (a male and a female). An infant was born in May 2005. No offspring dispersed during the study. Data were recorded using instantaneous focal animal sampling and it was possible to obtain detailed information on behavior because the individuals could be identified and the group was easily followed at close range. There are pelage differences among the age and sex categories. Pelage coloration differences in individuals of different groups may indicate color morphs or possible subspecies. The conservation status of C. oenanthe is described, with the conservative estimate that it persists in less than 1,800 km² of forest, much of it now fragmented. Callicebus oenanthe is extremely threatened by deforestation, a severely fragmented habitat, and the scarcity of large forest tracts to maintain viable populations. I recommend that it should be upgraded to the status of Endangered in the IUCN Red List.

The revision of the Mesoamerican howler monkeys by Barbara Lawrence in 1933 (Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool. Harv. 75: 313–354) resulted in the black howler of the Yucatán Peninsula, Mexico, Belize, and northern Guatemala being referred to as Alouatta pigra Lawrence, 1933. In her revision, Lawrence (1933) recognized the existence of a previous name, Mycetes villosus Gray, 1845, for the black howlers of the region, but considered that it was not possible to use it because the holotype (in the Natural History Museum, London) was restricted to a damaged skull of an immature female (the skin had been lost), the type locality was imprecise and confused, and she was unable to determine to which of two forms she named (A. palliata pigra [Mexico and Guatemala] and A. palliata luctuosa [Belize]) it may have belonged. James D. Smith (1970, J. Mammal. 51: 358-369) argued that luctuosa was indistinguishable from pigra, but that pigra should be considered a species distinct from palliata. Here I discuss the type specimen of Mycetes villosus and its probable type locality, and argue, as Prudence Napier did (1976, Catalogue of Primates in the British Museum (Natural History). Part 1: Families Callitrichidae and Cebidae. British Museum [Natural History], London), that Alouatta pigra Lawrence, 1933 is a junior synonym of Alouatta villosa (Gray, 1845).

John Cleese's woolly lemur (Avahi cleesei) was discovered in 1990 and officially defined and named in 2005. This nocturnal lemur is known to occur only in the Tsingy de Bemaraha Strict Nature Reserve, a UNESCO World Heritage Site in central western Madagascar. In this article we summarize available relevant information on morphology, distribution, habitat, and behavior including vocalizations to assess the conservation status and facilitate future investigations, surveys in particular. According to the IUCN Red List categories, A. cleesei is clearly in the category Endangered. Further studies might show, however, that the species should be classified as Critically Endangered, because of its very limited distribution and particularly specialized biological requirements.

The northern giant mouse lemur, Mirza zaza Kappeler and Roos in Kappeler et al., 2005, and Goodman's mouse lemur, Microcebus lehilahytsara Roos and Kappeler in Kappeler et al., 2005, are known from the region of the Ampasindava peninsula in northwestern Madagascar, and Andasibe and surrounding regions in east-central Madagascar, respectively. The presence of M. zaza in protected areas has yet to be confirmed, but it may occur in the Manongarivo Special Reserve and the Tsingy de Namoroka National Park. Microcebus lehilahytsara occurs in the Analamazaotra Special Reserve and Mantadia National Park. In this paper, we review what little is known of these two species in terms of their distributions and conservation status. Mirza zaza is possibly Vulnerable, following the IUCN Red List criteria, whereas Microcebus lehilahytsara is Data Deficient.

The conservation status of several African colobines has been studied extensively during recent years; however, this is not the case for the West African black-and-white colobus monkeys, notably Colobus polykomos dollmani of Côte d'Ivoire. In 2003 and 2004, we conducted surveys in three forest reserves and Marahoué National Park between the Sassandra and Bandama rivers in Côte d'Ivoire to assess the status of the primates there, with a special focus on Colobus p. dollmani. Thirteen primate taxa were expected in the south-central part of the interfluvial region. We confirmed the presence of eight, including Colobus p. dollmani. Only two of the eight taxa, however, were found to be relatively frequent in all of the four protected areas: Cercopithecus (c.) lowei and Cercopithecus p. petaurista. The presence of Cercopithecus (diana) roloway and Pan troglodytes verus in all four reserves could only be inferred from interviews with local people. Procolobus badius badius was mentioned as present by local people in only one reserve. We detected Colobus p. dollmani in only one of the forests visited but indirect evidence of its presence in a second reserve. Poaching and habitat destruction are the main threats to this subspecies as well as to the other taxa. Without immediate and vigorous action, this colobine taxon will probably be extinct in the near future.

This paper reviews the complicated nomenclatural history for the Kenya coast galago, Galagoides cf. cocos, and examines whether ‘cocos’ is the valid species name for this recently resurrected taxon. This paper also reviews the phenotypic and vocal differences among G. cocos; the Zanzibar galago (Galagoides zanzibaricus zanzibaricus); the Udzungwa galago (Galagoides zanzibaricus udzungwensis); and the Mozambique galago (Galagoides granti), as well as their geographic ranges and conservation status. The following are among the findings: (1) ‘Galagoides cocos’ is the name that should be applied to the Kenya coast galago; (2) in the field, the loud calls of these three species are diagnostic and remain the best means for identification; (3) there is a suite of phenotypic characters that, when taken together, can be used to distinguish among these three species when in the hand or viewed in the field in good light at close range; (4) G. z. zanzibaricus is phenotypically distinct from G. z. udzungwensis; (5) the three species are parapatric or, perhaps, narrowly sympatric; (6) the three species are endemic to the coastal forests of eastern Africa with G. cocos in the north (Kenya and northeastern Tanzania), G. zanzibaricus in Tanzania, and G. granti from southern Tanzania to southern Mozambique; and (7) none of the three species is threatened at this time, although G. z. zanzibaricus meets the IUCN Red List criteria for an Endangered subspecies.

The highland mangabey (Lophocebus kipunji), described and named in 2005, is the first monkey to be discovered in Africa since 1984. This species, endemic to Tanzania, was independently discovered by two research groups, one working in Ndundulu Forest in the Udzungwa Mountains, the other ∼350 km to the southwest in the Rungwe-Livingstone Forest in the Southern Highlands. Lophocebus kipunji is an arboreal omnivore with a morphology and vocal repertoire distinct from other mangabeys (Lophocebus spp. and Cercocebus spp.). Although few data are available, studies of its molecular biology, ecology, behavior, and conservation status are underway. Lophocebus kipunji is Critically Endangered as a result of hunting and loss of habitat, which have produced small and fragmented populations. Efforts to improve the conservation status of both Ndundulu Forest and Rungwe-Livingstone Forest are ongoing, as well as augmentation of community-based conservation programs with expanded law enforcement. Research, long-term monitoring, effective law enforcement, and additional conservation projects are all essential to the long-term survival of L. kipunji.

Recent surveys carried out in the Mbam Djerem National Park, Cameroon, have recorded the presence of talapoin monkeys (Miopithecus ogouensis). This area, at about 6°N, is in the transition zone between the Central African forest block and the Guinea-Congolia/Sudania savannas. These observations, plus those from similar habitat in the Central African Republic to the east, suggest that the distribution of the northern talapoin may be much more extensive than previously thought. Its small size and choice of habitat may have precluded it from being noticed by wildlife surveys in the past, as these monkeys tend to occur in swampy areas with thick vegetation. Future survey teams are encouraged to be on the lookout for talapoins both north and south of the Equator in savanna gallery forests.

Allen's swamp monkey, Allenopithecus nigroviridis, is confined to the swamp and riparian forests of the Central African region. It occurs along the Congo River and its tributaries. Recent data show that it occupies suitable habitat at least 100 km to the northwest of its previously known distribution, in an area to the west of the Nouabalé-Ndoki National Park, in the northern Republic of Congo. The apparent absence of the swamp monkey from most of the interior of the Nouabalé-Ndoki National Park itself suggests that the species probably reached northwest Congo along the Sangha and Ndoki Rivers, rather than by dispersing across the watersheds from the Oubangui. Hunters find the species easy to shoot from canoes at night, as these monkeys like to sleep in overhanging vegetation beside the rivers. More details on its distribution in the region and of its conservation status are required.

Surveys were carried out for chimpanzees, Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii, in the areas of Ntakata (300 km² between the Mkamba River and the Lubalisi River, 05°45′–06°15′S, 30°00′–30°15′E), and Kakungu (200 km² between the Lubalisi River and the sources of the Rubufu River, 05°55′–06°15′S, 30°00′–30°15′E), Tanzania, during the dry seasons of 2001 and 2003. The predominant vegetation was savanna woodland with forest patches (mainly along watercourses and hillsides). Population information was obtained by sightings and sleeping-nest counts. In the Ntakata area, chimpanzees occur in Ntakata, Mlofwezi, Kapalagulu (05°52′S, 30°02′E), and Mpulumuka (5°58′S, 30°11 ′E) and in the Ntakata-Kapalagulu Hills (^{Fig. 1}). No evidence was forthcoming for their existence in Ikubulu, Lunfampa, Kakundu, Kabufisa, and Kamafiga, nor the plains of north of Kapalagulu Hill and the entire Lugufu basin. In the Kakungu area, they occur at Kakungu itself (05°58′S, 30°03′E) and Kalobwa in the Kakungu-Kalobwa Hills. With evidently large home ranges, densities were found to be low in the 500-km² area between the Ntakata-Kapalagulu Hills and Kakungu-Kalobwa Hills — everywhere less than 0.05(0.048) individuals/km². Hunting (by immigrant farmers and refugees), besides habitat loss (logging, firewood, and clearing for agriculture) are believed be causing a steady decline of chimpanzee populations in the region.

Gibbons, Family Hylobatidae Gray, 1870, are small, arboreal apes of the tropical and semi-deciduous forests of southeast Asia and parts of south and east Asia. Four genera and about 14 species are currently recognized; a number of them threatened with extinction. Two of the reasons for breeding gibbons in captivity are to retain species and subspecies diversity and to create a viable gene pool, with the ultimate goal of releasing animals into protected native habitat. Accurate taxonomic identification may be complicated for some gibbon species due to (1) variation in coat color, (2) sexual dichromatism, and (3) the occurrence of coat color changes from infancy through sexual maturity, and for all species because of (4) the impacts of such as malnutrition and housing on coloration (for example, their maintenance indoors only or in full sunlight), (5) the ease with which the vocalizations of the different species can be confused, (6) the difficulties in distinguishing some gibbon subspecies from each other, and (7) errors in, or the lack of, information concerning the origin of confiscated gibbons. Given these problems, it is not surprising that rescue and breeding centers encounter difficulties in identifying the gibbons they receive. I review the characteristics and identifying features of the species and subspecies of gibbons, including information from museum specimens, live gibbons housed at the Gibbon Conservation Center, Santa Clarita, California, and a number of zoos worldwide.

The song structure of pileated gibbons (Hylobates pileatus) was studied in eight locations in southwestern Cambodia. Male and female vocalizations were recorded daily between 07:00 and 13:00 for five consecutive days at each. The results showed that peak calling activity occurs around 10:00, with slight variation between different locations. A female's song is typically made up of approximately seven to eight phrases of great calls (average = 7.63 ± 2.36), each lasting an average of 13.25 ±6.09 seconds. Matching male call phrases are relatively stable at 11 .55 ±3.82 seconds and are positively correlated with the duration of matching female songs, whereas solo male call phrases are shorter, 10.66 ±9.16 with no correlation to female songs. The number of great call phrases, the sequences, and duration in female songs varied significantly between individuals from different localities. This suggests that gibbon develop local dialects and that songs constitutes an important parameter in pair formation and social structures.

The recently described Arunachal macaque, Macaca munzala, has to date been reported only from western Arunachal Pradesh, Eastern Himalaya. Our surveys have recorded a total of 35 troops and 569 individuals, probably a conservative estimate, for the macaque population in the Tawang and West Kameng districts of the state. The species appears to be tolerant to anthropogenic habitat change, but is vulnerable to hunting and retaliatory killing in response to crop damage. Data from one part of the area surveyed, however, indicate that the species can attain remarkably high population densities in the absence of hunting. Macaca munzala will need to be protected in human-modified landscapes, and the issues of crop damage and retaliatory persecution must be addressed urgently.

The Hatinh langur, Trachypithecus laotum hatinhensis (Dao, 1970), is one of the many Vietnamese primates on the brink of extinction due to hunting and the loss of its natural habitat. This black langur, distinguished by its white moustache and sideburns that extend behind the ears to the nape, inhabits the limestone forests of the Central Annamite Mountains. The Hatinh langur is diurnal and largely arboreal, and group sizes are 15 or more. Here we report on surveys carried out in 1998–1999 in Quang Binh Province to determine the population status of T. laotum hatinhensis. In Vietnam, it occurs only in the limestone areas of five districts in the Quang Binh Province and Huong Hoa District of Quang Tri Province. The most important population is in the Phong Nha–Ke Bang National Park of Quang Binh Province; the only Vietnamese protected area where it is known to occur. Some observations on the species ecology and behavior are also included.

The Javan gibbon (Hylobates moloch), found in Western Java, is one of the rarest and most endangered of the hylobatids. Two workshops, which brought together Indonesian primate biologists, international scientists, zoos, local and international nongovernmental organizations, and government organizations, have been carried out for the conservation of this species. In 1994, a Population and Habitat Viability Analysis (PHVA) workshop was held focusing on the distribution, status, and threats of wild populations of Javan gibbon, and in 1997, a second was held to discuss strategies for rescue and rehabilitation. The results have been used to develop guidelines to save the Javan gibbon in the wild, and to trace further directions for research on, and the monitoring of, the remaining populations. To date, major accomplishments are as follows; headway has been made on protecting their stronghold habitats through the creation of the Gunung Ciremai National Park and the development of a conservation corridor, incorporating Gunung Salak into Gunung Halimun National Park and enlarging the Gunung Gede Pangrango National Park, which increased the size of the two parks to 135,000 ha in total and more than doubled the amount of protected habitat for the Javan gibbon; programs have been set up for monitoring the pet market as well as populations in the wild; a rescue and rehabilitation center has been established, as has an education program and a conservation awareness campaign using the Javan gibbon as a mascot species.

The aim of this study was to understand plasticity and resilience in the behavioral ecology of one of India's most endangered primates, the golden langur (Trachypithecus geei) inhabiting forest reserves in Assam. Our survey revealed that golden langur populations in Assam are isolated; restricted to just pockets of suitable habitat. Their forests face severe human pressure mainly due to illegal logging, hunting, and widespread invasion for both commercial interests and by displaced refugees. An extensive survey using a stratified random walk transect method estimated a total population of 943 individuals living in 96 groups. About 40% of the langurs recorded were immature and the average group size was 9.8. Adult sex ratio was 1.5 to 5.0 adult female for each adult male. Four groups inhabiting forests with varying degree of disturbance were monitored using focal animal sampling for 1,728 hours during 12 months. Records on activity budgets, food and feeding behavior, and reproductive and ecological profiles indicated significant differences between them, attributed to differences in habitat quality. Small groups, isolation, proportionately few infants and juveniles, and habitats of increasingly poor quality are all parameters suggesting further decline in the golden langur population of the region. Conservation initiatives focusing on research, education, and community participation are show considerable success.

We studied the ranging patterns of three troops of Hanuman langur (Semnopithecus entellus) in Kumbhalgarh Wildlife Sanctuary, 200 km south of Jodhpur, in the western Aravalli Hills of Rajasthan, India. The home ranges were 106, 45, and 70 ha. This study suggests that the availability of preferred foods, including farm crops and provisioned food, determine the day range of langurs. Comparison of the day ranges of these troops suggests that langurs will raid crops whenever the opportunity is available. They also readily accept foods supplied by humans. Their exploitation of these foods reduces day lengths and range size compared with troops living in forested areas.