Effective management techniques are needed to disperse Canada geese (Branta canadensis) and reduce the human–wildlife conflicts associated with high population densities. We evaluated the effectiveness of a motion-activated laser hazing system for repelling captive Canada geese. The system decreased occupancy of 8 pairs of geese on the treated subplot by 83% during habituation trials. When an additional pair of geese were added to the experiment, occupancy of the treated subplot decreased >92% during each of the 20 nights of the extended habituation test. Avoidance (conditioned during the test) remained <80% of pretreatment levels during the 2 days immediately following the habituation test but extinguished 3 days subsequent to the permanent inactivation of the laser hazing system. The motion-activated laser hazing system effectively repelled Canada geese in captivity. Additional field research is needed to determine the spatial extent of the laser hazing system and the effectiveness of the Doppler radar motion detector for repelling wild geese. (WILDLIFE SOCIETY BULLETIN 34(1):2–7; 2006)

White-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) populations continue to increase, resulting in direct threats to public safety and increased agricultural losses. A variety of fencing methods are used to reduce deer presence at airports and agricultural areas. Electric fences may offer a less expensive alternative to expensive woven-wire fences. We tested an electric fence product, ElectroBraid™ (Yarmouth, N.S., Canada), on free-ranging deer in northern Ohio. We conducted both 1- and 2-choice tests, measuring deer intrusions and corn consumption at 10 sites encompassed with charged, noncharged or no fence. Mean daily deer intrusions decreased in each test when the fence was powered. When power was immediately applied to the fence, intrusions decreased 88–99%. When power was delayed for 10 weeks, intrusions were reduced 90%. When power was turned on and off within a 4-week period, intrusions decreased 57%. Mean corn consumption differed between treated (< 2–6.4 kg/day) and control sites (15–32 kg/day). Under the conditions and time duration of this test, the fence was an effective deer barrier. (WILDLIFE SOCIETY BULLETIN 34(1):8–15; 2006)

The installation of fences to protect agricultural products, natural resources, or other areas from deer (Odocoileus spp.) can be expensive and potential benefits of fencing are difficult to quantify. A rational method is needed to help evaluate whether fencing can be cost-effective and which fence designs will be optimal for particular applications. We describe an interactive, dynamic simulation model that conducts economic analyses and predicts economic benefit associated with fences for crops relative to area and perimeter of protected plot, value of crop, percentage of crop damaged by deer annually prior to fencing, efficacy of fence, and costs of fence materials and labor. Users of the model can easily adjust these variables to fit their individual situations and needs. By running a series of simulations, model users can answer questions related directly to fence efficacy and cost-effectiveness. (WILDLIFE SOCIETY BULLETIN 34(1):16–22; 2006)

Conflicts with American black bears (Ursus americanus) are increasing in rural and suburban areas throughout the United States. Human encroachment on bear range has increased availability of garbage, bird feeders, beehives, and other food sources. Preventing bears from attaining food from anthropogenic sources could mitigate these conflicts. We tested a new shocking mechanism that is being marketed to deter black bears from attaining food from clumped anthropogenic food sources. The Nuisance Bear Controller (NBC) has two 6-volt batteries wired to an automobile vibrator coil/condenser that emits 10,000–13,000 volts through a disk that triggers the device. Activation of the NBC only occurs when a bear or other animal contacts the disk. We tested the NBC in a rural area of central Minnesota by placing both unprotected and protected simulated bird feeders at 10 independent sites during summer and autumn 2004 and measuring the fate of each feeder. During the test period no protected feeders were robbed or destroyed by black bears, whereas 40% of unprotected feeders were robbed or destroyed (P = 0.043, one-tailed Fisher's exact test). The NBC is an inexpensive ($200.00), portable, and adaptable system that potentially can be used in a variety of situations to deter bears from accessing concentrated food sources.

Since 1970 controversy has surrounded the status and management of Rocky Mountain elk (Cervus elaphus) in northern Arizona. Concerns focused on effects of elk on private and public land, size of the elk population, interactions between elk and cattle, and interactions between elk and humans. Currently, there is no primary literature regarding human perceptions of elk-related damage on ranches in Arizona. In 2001 we surveyed to document perceptions of stakeholders regarding elk management in northern Arizona. A majority of non-rancher stakeholders did not experience conflicts with elk. The public knew little about elk management in Arizona but wanted more information. Ranchers incurred monetary losses due to elk damage and 30% viewed Rocky Mountain elk as an exotic species. We documented a few similarities between ranchers and agency biologists as to reported effects of elk on ranchers' property. This may provide a platform for resource agency managers to facilitate discussion and communication strategies to optimize elk management among ranchers and the general public.

New York State's Adirondack Park is home to an estimated 6,000 black bears (Ursus americanus), about 75% of the state's total population. Human–bear interactions at the Park's nearly 100 campgrounds are commonplace. Some interactions are conflicts that include risks to personal safety and property damage. Between 19 June 2003 and 18 August 2003, we interviewed 54 Adirondack Park campers and caretakers at 7 campgrounds to determine stakeholder-perceived risks. We structured interviews to assess 9 possible constructs influencing risks not yet reported in the literature for human–bear conflicts from campground stakeholders' perspectives: volition of exposure; certainty; feelings of dread; perceived frequency of exposure to risk; responsiveness of black bear managers; trust in black bear managers; familiarity of risk; natural causes of risk; and control over risk. Overall, perceived risk associated with human–bear conflict was low. Evidence-based analysis revealed 8 of 9 constructs to be salient. We characterized salient constructs according to camper and caretaker perspectives. Caretakers had a higher risk perception than campers. Using camper comments as a foundation, we classified groups of constructs as agency capacity/responsiveness (i.e., incorporating volition, trust, and responsiveness of wildlife managers), and individual capacity/knowledge (i.e., incorporating perceived certainty, dread, and frequency, control over exposure to risks associated with black bears, and magnitude or acuteness of exposure to risks associated with black bears). With additional confirmatory analysis, these constructs and methodology may have the potential to increase understanding of risk perceptions associated with human–bear conflict and inform the content and format of strategic management plans incorporating risk management and communication.

A goal of human dimensions research is to provide input that will improve decision making regarding wildlife management. When communicating results to managers, it is imperative that human dimensions researchers provide clear statistical information and convey the practical implications of their findings. To assist this effort, this paper describes a formula for computing a Potential for Conflict Index (PCI) and presents a graphic technique for displaying results. The PCI values range between 0 and 1, where 0 suggests no conflict and 1 suggests maximum conflict. To illustrate computation and graphic display of the PCI, we present data from a study of Wisconsin deer (Odocoileus spp.) hunters' attitudes and behavior in response to chronic wasting disease (CWD). Results suggest that PCI facilitates understanding hunters' behavior (e.g., likelihood of hunting) and attitudes regarding management actions (e.g., herd eradication) in response to CWD. The PCI allows managers to better understand controversial issues and take proactive steps targeted at specific stakeholders to minimize conflict before implementing a policy. We encourage researchers to adopt the PCI technique or variations of it.

We conducted tests of airborne thermal imagery of Pacific walrus to determine if this technology can be used to detect walrus groups on sea ice and estimate the number of walruses present in each group. In April 2002 we collected thermal imagery of 37 walrus groups in the Bering Sea at spatial resolutions ranging from 1–4 m. We also collected high-resolution digital aerial photographs of the same groups. Walruses were considerably warmer than the background environment of ice, snow, and seawater and were easily detected in thermal imagery. We found a significant linear relation between walrus group size and the amount of heat measured by the thermal sensor at all 4 spatial resolutions tested. This relation can be used in a double-sampling framework to estimate total walrus numbers from a thermal survey of a sample of units within an area and photographs from a subsample of the thermally detected groups. Previous methods used in visual aerial surveys of Pacific walrus have sampled only a small percentage of available habitat, resulting in population estimates with low precision. Results of this study indicate that an aerial survey using a thermal sensor can cover as much as 4 times the area per hour of flight time with greater reliability than visual observation.

We sampled forest floor herpetofaunal communities in a monsoonal rainforest in South India for three consecutive years to evaluate the use of cluster sampling in estimating species composition and density. Our initial experimental design consisted of comprehensive random searches of multiple 25m² quadrats (SRS) for animals. After our initial season we found that most quadrats had zero animals detected and, when encountered, animals were spatially aggregated. To increase sampling efficiency and derive more precise density estimates, we shifted to adaptive cluster sampling (ACS). We compared the relative sampling efficiencies of ACS to SRS and the ability of the 2 methods to detect rare species. Adaptive cluster sampling failed to yield the more precise density estimates as predicted by statistical theory. However, ACS yielded more individual and rare species detections. Our results suggest the ACS assumptions should be carefully evaluated prior to use because it may not be appropriate for all rare, spatially aggregated populations.

Ineffective survey methods of carnivores limit the ability of managers and researchers to make sound research conclusions and management recommendations. Because bobcats (Lynx rufus) are individually identifiable due to their unique coat patterns, it may be possible to obtain density estimates using capture–recapture models. We photo-trapped bobcats on the 3,156-ha Welder Wildlife Foundation Refuge in southern Texas from September 2000 through August 2001 to determine whether automatically triggered cameras could produce reliable estimates of bobcat density. Using the Schumacher-Eschmeyer estimator, we obtained an abundance estimate of 15 individuals (95% CI = 13.6–16.7) from 56 bobcat photographs. Our estimate was comparable to bobcat densities previously reported on our study area. This technique has the potential to provide wildlife managers and researchers with reliable data on bobcat abundance not previously available without the expense of physical capture and radiotelemetry. Our relatively high photographic success might be attributable to the dense chaparral-type vegetation and the large network of travel pathways available on our study area. These methods may not be as successful in open areas or where bobcat travel is not predictable. We encourage replication of this technique elsewhere in bobcat range where density, vegetation, and travel pathways differ.

Population densities are costly and logistically infeasible to measure directly across the broad geographic ranges of many wildlife species. For snowshoe hares (Lepus americanus), a keystone species in northern boreal forest, indirect approaches for estimating population densities based on fecal pellet densities have been developed for boreal forest in northwestern Canada and in conifer-dominated montane forest in Idaho. Previous authors cautioned against applying these estimates across the geographic range of hares without further testing, but no published relationships for estimating densities from pellet counts are available for the mixed conifer–deciduous forests of the southeastern portion of the hare's range in North America. Thus, we estimated pellet and hare densities in 12 forested stands, 4 sampled twice during 1981–1983 and 8 sampled once during 2000–2002. Mark–recapture estimated densities of snowshoe hares from eastern and western Maine during 1981–1983 were linearly related to pellet densities to 15,000 pellets/ha/month (1.5 hares/ha) (Adj. r² = 0.87, n = 8, P < 0.001) and accurately predicted densities of hares (x̄ = 7 % greater) estimates than actually observed at higher pellet densities sampled in northern Maine during 2000–2002.

Quantifying activity budgets and determining the accuracy of behavioral data obtained by telemetry is essential to understand the behavior of animals that are difficult to observe. We fitted 8 captive white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) with VHF or GPS collars to determine the accuracy of VHF variable-pulse sensors and GPS dual-axis sensors and validate the performance of VHF telemetry for the measurement of activity budgets. We also evaluated whether instantaneous activity counts could measure daily activity patterns of 16 free-ranging deer fitted with GPS collars on Anticosti Island (Québec, Canada). Comparison of VHF telemetry data and visual observations of active (feeding, moving, and standing) and inactive (resting) deer behaviors were correct in 74% of the scans. Using the activity values of 3 successive VHF scans, we increased accuracy to 84% of the observed behaviors and detected 87% of observed activity bouts. The accuracy of GPS activity data varied with orientation of the sensor: activity counts of vertical sensors (92% agreement) were better able to predict observed behaviors than activity counts from horizontal sensors (83% agreement). GPS activity sensors detected peaks of activity after dawn and at dusk in free-ranging deer. We conclude that dual-axis GPS motion sensors can be used to reliably record activity data and successive scans from VHF sensors can precisely detect activity bouts in large herbivores.

An important assumption of telemetry studies is that radiomarking does not negatively affect study animals. To test this assumption for mourning doves (Zenaida macroura), we evaluated whether subcutaneous transmitter implants (STI) would affect bird weight in cage studies and hunting mortality in field studies. At three weeks post-implantation, caged adult birds in the sham surgery and control groups gained and STI birds lost weight. Males gained and females lost weight. When percent weight change (PWC) for caged adult and juveniles were pooled the trends were similar, suggesting a STI treatment effect. In the field study, 16.3% of observed mortalities of STI birds during July–November 1998–2000 occurred during the first 3 days post-release. The overall 45-day summer period survival rate was relatively high, 0.9446 (95% CI = 0.8907–0.9986), when birds were entered into the population at-risk on the fourth day post-release. Although most observed mortalities were hunting-related (62.7%), similar direct recovery rates (P = 0.186) for STI (14.7%) and leg-banded birds (9.2%) suggests that implanted radios did not increase a bird's vulnerability to hunting mortality in the year of marking. However, the difference between the direct recovery rates of the 2 cohorts may be large enough to be biologically significant. Further research is needed to determine whether STI birds are especially susceptible to hunting mortality.

As part of a multi-phase study aimed at examining the impact, habitat use, and movement patterns of the invasive rodent the nutria (Myocastor coypus), we developed a methodology to most effectively capture and implant these animals with radiotransmitters. Using a hand-held fishing net, we captured 20 adult nutrias from an airboat and implanted them with intraperitoneal radiotransmitters. We used the anesthetic tiletamine-zolazepam (Telazol®, Ft Dodge Animal Health, Ft. Dodge, Iowa) to immobilize the animals during surgery. We released all individuals back into a fresh water floating marsh habitat within 24 hours of implantation. There was increased survivorship when we placed animals in a predator-free enclosure for a minimum of 3 days. We found that the combination of airboat capture, Telazol® anesthesia, and 24-hr post-surgery release was successful only if animals could be kept in a predator-free environment for at least 72 hours. Therefore, if holding facilities and sufficient temporal, monetary, and human resources are available, these methods may result in sufficient survivorship to allow for the monitoring of these and other medium-sized, semi-aquatic mammals.

We evaluated the effectiveness of receiver/data loggers for monitoring the presence/absence of radiocollared animals in discrete areas. Our primary objective was to determine how variation in transmitter signal strength affected the size of area being monitored. This information will help researchers better manage the uncertainty related to determining an animal's location relative to a discrete boundary. We used an adjustable attenuator to measure signal strength to determine the minimum number of decibels (dB) required to eliminate detection of a radio signal by receiver/data loggers. We quantified how dB varied depending upon orientation of the transmitter on the animal and distance from receiver/data logger (radius of detection). Based upon this signal strength variation, we then calculated a zone of uncertainty (i.e., the area in which detection of a radio signal was uncertain at a particular radius of detection). The zone of uncertainty increased exponentially with a linear increase in radius of detection. We do not recommend using receiver/data loggers to monitor radiocollared animals in discrete areas unless uncertainty is acceptable. (WILDLIFE SOCIETY BULLETIN 34(1):111–115; 2006)

From 1999–2002, we attached satellite-received platform transmitter terminals (PTTs) to 40 adult female prairie falcons (Falco mexicanus) on their nesting grounds in the Snake River Birds of Prey National Conservation Area (NCA) in southwest Idaho. We used 3 variations of a backpack harness design that had been used previously on raptors. Each radiomarked falcon also received a color leg band with a unique alphanumeric code. We monitored survival of birds using radiotelemetry and searched for marked birds on their nesting grounds during breeding seasons after marking. Because 6 falcons removed their harnesses during the first year, we were able to compare survival rates of birds that shed PTTs with those that retained them. We describe a harness design that failed prematurely as well as designs that proved successful for long-term PTT attachment. We resighted 21 marked individuals on nesting areas 1–5 years after they were radiomarked and documented 13 mortalities of satellite-tracked falcons. We used a Cormack-Jolly-Seber model to estimate apparent survival probability based on band resighting and telemetry data. Platform transmitter terminals had no short-term effects on falcons or their nesting success during the nesting season they were marked, but birds that shed their transmitters increased their probability of survival. Estimated annual survival for birds that shed their transmitters was 87% compared to 49% for birds wearing transmitters. We discuss possible reasons for differences in apparent survival rates and offer recommendations for future marking of falcons.

In Norway, Sweden, and Finland most beavers (Castor spp.) harvested are shot with center-fire rifles. Shooting entails problems not encountered in trapping including pelt damage from bullet holes (body shots are common) and escape of wounded animals. It was predicted that beavers shot in the body with splinter projectiles designed to fragment after impact would experience fewer exit holes (i.e., less pelt damage) and less wounding, but more meat loss, than those shot with conventional controlled expansion projectiles. Twenty-two hunters shot 163 beavers during normal hunting. As predicted, exit frequency was lower for splinter (22%) than controlled expansion projectiles (95%) but neither wounding frequency nor meat damage varied significantly. The combined wounding frequency for both projectile types was 4.3%. Ninety-eight percent of the body-shot animals retrieved (n = 111) appeared to die instantly. Beaver hunting with center-fire rifles was considered humane. (WILDLIFE SOCIETY BULLETIN 34(1):127–130; 2006)

Management strategies that incorporate the social behavior of wildlife may be more efficient in achieving population objectives. Our current knowledge of white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) social behaviors may not be adequate for application to management. Using captive white-tailed deer, we investigated the long-held assumption that relatively few dominant males sire most offspring and, thus, prevent subordinates from breeding. Although this assumption influences population predictions and management strategies, empirical studies of the relationship between dominance and male breeding success in deer are lacking. We determined male dominance rank and genetic paternity through 6 breeding trials. Although dominant males sired most offspring, subordinates sired offspring in 5 of 6 trials and multiple paternity (siring of offspring by 2 males) occurred in ˜24% of compound litters. Further, male dominance ranks were not necessarily predictable or stable during the breeding season. This study indicates that the relationship between social dominance and male breeding success may be more complex than previously thought. Our findings also are consistent with recent studies of parentage in wild deer, providing additional evidence that social dominance does not necessarily equate to breeding success. Conceptual models of deer breeding behaviors should account for considerable individual heterogeneity among males in their ability to sire offspring.

Human disturbance has caused declines in populations of many cave-dwelling bats and other cave-obligate organisms. Cave gating has been used to eliminate human disturbance, but few studies have assessed its impact on internal cave climate. We recorded ambient (air) and substrate (rock) temperatures at specified distances within the entrances of 3 gated and 3 open-passage caves in northeastern Oklahoma during summers 1999 and 2000 and winters 1999–2000 and 2000–2001. No differences occurred in ambient and substrate temperatures at any distance or season between gated and open-passage caves. We also monitored long-term (6 weeks) and seasonal (summer and winter) climate variables at specific distances inside 2 caves (OK-13 and OK-220) before and after modifications of their cave passages/entrances. Ambient and substrate temperatures before and after cave manipulation differed in only 1 of 12 observations in summer but in 9 of 12 observations in winter. We also monitored cave climate 7 days immediately before and after passage modification. Differences occurred at all 8 observations and at 4 of 12 observations before and after entrance and passage manipulation at OK-13 and OK-220, respectively. Airflow did not differ when monitored 7 days before and 7 days after instillation of an internal gate system in the passage of cave OK-220. Our data indicate that caves with modified entrances and passages show no changes in ambient and substrate temperatures in summer and only slight changes in winter. Although temperature changes during winter were statistically different, we posit that their biological implications on endemic cave fauna are minimal. (WILDLIFE SOCIETY BULLETIN 34(1):137–143; 2006)

Roost site selection should be influenced, in part, by predator avoidance strategies. Prey species may use olfactory cues to assess predation risk. Our objective was to determine if southern flying squirrels (Glaucomys volans) use olfaction for assessing predation risk and selecting safe roosting sites. We tested the response of captive flying squirrels to several scents placed inside nest boxes. Squirrels spent significantly less time overnight in nest boxes scented with fox squirrel (Sciurus niger) fur, bobcat (Lynx rufus) fur, red fox (Vulpes vulpes) urine, raccoon (Procyon lotor) fur, king snake (Lampropeltis getula), and corn snake (Elaphe guttata) than unscented (control) boxes. Nest boxes with gray squirrel (S. carolinensis) fur, red fox urine, raccoon fur, and corn snake scent were selected as daytime roosting sites less than would be expected by chance. Southern flying squirrels are a major usurper of red-cockaded woodpecker (Picoides borealis) cavities and may reduce reproduction in this endangered bird. Our results indicate that predator odor may be an effective means of deterring flying squirrels from roost sites. If so, predator scent application could be utilized to reduce negative impacts of flying squirrels on red-cockaded woodpeckers. (WILDLIFE SOCIETY BULLETIN 34(1):144–149; 2006)

The illegal harvest of natural resources (i.e., poaching) has the potential to threaten the persistence of many plant and animal species. In Michigan bobcats (Lynx rufus) are distributed throughout the Upper Peninsula (UP) and the northern half of the Lower Peninsula (LP) and are a biologically and economically important species. The popularity of bobcat hunting and trapping in Michigan, along with different harvest regulations between the 2 peninsulas, has created the need for a reliable method of identifying incidences of poaching. Because the bag limit is higher in the UP, we hypothesized that some bobcats harvested in the LP are being registered as originating from the UP. We used 8 polymorphic microsatellite markers and the statistical package STRUCTURE to assign individuals to the population in which they had the highest likelihood of occurrence based on their genotype. We evaluated the influence of using posterior probability threshold values from T > 0.9–0.999 on the number of animals classified as poached. Based on this range, STRUCTURE produced correct assignment rates of 53–82%. All instances of genetic re-assignment involved bobcats claimed as harvested in the UP but genetically assigned to the LP following the suspected method of bobcat poaching in Michigan. This approach provides a reliable method of determining the source population for bobcats harvested in the state and should provide enforcement agencies with a useful way of identifying potential poaching cases.

Predictive models that estimate seed mass of hydrophytes are useful for efficiently and accurately estimating forage availability for waterfowl in wetlands. Two predictors of seed mass have been successfully used in the past: a dot grid method that places plant inflorescences on a 9 dots/cm² grid and counts the number of dots obscured by seed and measuring multiple plant measurements (e.g., inflorescence length and width). I developed 6 equations to predict seed mass/plant for Walter's millet (Echinochloa walteri) from 9 impoundments on 5 National Wildlife Refuges located in New Jersey, Delaware, and Virginia, USA. These equations included variables for number of dots obscured by seeds, plant morphology measurements, geographic location, and combinations of these variables. I used Akaike's Information Criterion to compare these competing models. The model using the number of dots covered by seeds (Y [g/plant] = 0.0036 × number of dots obscured) performed the best among the models tested. This model explained 85.9% of the variation in seed mass. The dot-grid method is a reliable and efficient technique to estimate seed mass of hydrophytes. I recommend that wetland managers use the dot-grid method to estimate available seed forage for waterfowl and evaluate this technique for additional plant species and geographic areas. (WILDLIFE SOCIETY BULLETIN 34(1):156–158; 2006)

As part of a cooperative research project to investigate impacts of autumn either-sex hunting on female wild turkeys (Meleagris gallopavo silvestris), we evaluated the effect of trapping period under different autumn hunting scenarios by capturing and radiomarking 1,544 birds from 1989 through 1994. We compared the effects of trapping before autumn hunting season to the more typical post-hunting winter trapping. Survival and causes of mortality showed a similar interaction between trapping period, age, and length of autumn hunting season. The primary effect was decreased survival of juveniles captured during autumn. Mean survival for juveniles captured during autumn (Ŝ = 0.50) was lower than for juveniles captured during winter (Ŝ = 0.73, P < 0.001), and adults captured during autumn (Ŝ = 0.64, P < 0.001) or winter (Ŝ = 0.61, P = 0.002). The negative effects on juvenile turkeys was greater for longer autumn hunting seasons. Survival differences were attributed to differential susceptibility to harvest; the largest difference in mortality resulted from legal harvest, which was 5.5 times greater for juveniles captured in the autumn before hunting season (18%) than for winter-captured juveniles (3% P < 0.004). Autumn-captured juveniles' age and inexperience compounded by flock disruption and stress of trapping increased their susceptibility to autumn harvest. (WILDLIFE SOCIETY BULLETIN 34(1):159–166; 2006)

Bullet fragments in rifle-killed deer (Odocoileus spp.) carrion have been implicated as agents of lead intoxication and death in bald eagles (Haliaeetus leucocephalus), golden eagles (Aquila chrysaetos), California condors (Gymnogyps californianus), and other avian scavengers. Deer offal piles are present and available to scavengers in autumn, and the degree of exposure depends upon incidence, abundance, and distribution of fragments per offal pile and carcass lost to wounding. In radiographs of selected portions of the remains of 38 deer supplied by cooperating, licensed hunters in 2002–2004, we found metal fragments broadly distributed along wound channels. Ninety-four percent of samples of deer killed with lead-based bullets contained fragments, and 90% of 20 offal piles showed fragments: 5 with 0–9 fragments, 5 with 10–100, 5 with 100–199, and 5 showing >200 fragments. In contrast, we counted a total of only 6 fragments in 4 whole deer killed with copper expanding bullets. These findings suggest a high potential for scavenger exposure to lead.

Reproductive success of red-cockaded woodpeckers (Picoides borealis) appears to be reduced when even a single cavity in a cluster of woodpecker cavities is occupied by a southern flying squirrel (Glaucomys volans). One potential technique for reducing flying squirrel use of woodpecker cavities is the addition of nest boxes to clusters. In this study we evaluated the effects of nest boxes and red-cockaded woodpecker presence (activity) on flying squirrel use of cavities at the Joseph W. Jones Ecological Research Center in Newton, Georgia from 26 September 2002 until 26 June 2003. The interaction between presence of nest boxes and woodpecker activity significantly affected success (proportion of time no flying squirrels occupied any cavities in a cluster; F_1,16 = 5.10, P = 0.04). Success was higher in active clusters with nest boxes (95%) than active clusters without nest boxes (83%) but was similar in inactive clusters (success with and without nest boxes = 78%). The proportion of cavities usurped by squirrels cluster⁻¹ month⁻¹ was higher for inactive clusters (0.07) than for active clusters (0.03; F_1,16 = 6.59, P = 0.02). The number of usurped nest boxes per cluster was higher for active clusters (5.67) than inactive clusters (2.71; F_1,8 = 4.56, P = 0.07). Our results indicate that nest box addition coupled with flying squirrel removal may reduce flying squirrel use of cavities, especially when cavities occur in clusters containing red-cockaded woodpeckers.

Wildlife managers often resort to prescribed fire to restore sagebrush (Artemisia spp.) ecosystems thought to have been affected by fire exclusion. However, a fire mosaic of burned and unburned areas may be tolerated by certain wildlife but can be detrimental to sagebrush obligates. This article assesses evidence about the historical frequency and pattern of fire in sagebrush ecosystems and the need for prescribed fire. Fire-scar data from nearby forests require adjustment to estimate fire rotation, the time required to burn once through a sagebrush landscape. Estimates from forests require correction for unburned area and because sagebrush burns less often than forests. Recovery time also might indicate fire rotation. Mountain big sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata ssp. vaseyana) recovers within about 35–100 or more years after fire, and Wyoming big sagebrush (A. t. ssp. wyomingensis) requires 50–120 or more years. Fire rotation in other ecosystems is 2 or more times the recovery period. Together, the evidence suggests fire rotations may be a minimum of 325–450 years in low sagebrush (A. arbuscula), 100–240 years in Wyoming big sagebrush, 70–200 years or more in mountain big sagebrush, and 35–100 years in mountain grasslands with a little sagebrush. Given these long rotations, fire exclusion likely has had little effect in most sagebrush areas. If maintaining and restoring habitat for sagebrush-dependent species is the goal, fire should be suppressed where there is a threat of cheatgrass (Bromus tectorum). Elsewhere, fire does not need to be reintroduced until native understory plants can be restored, so that sagebrush ecosystems can fully recover from fire. (WILDLIFE SOCIETY BULLETIN 34(1):177–185; 2006)

Methods to sample the abundance of moist-soil seeds efficiently and accurately are critical for evaluating management practices and determining food availability. We adapted a portable, gasoline-powered vacuum to estimate abundance of seeds on the surface of a moist-soil wetland in east-central Mississippi and evaluated the sampler by simulating conditions that researchers and managers may experience when sampling moist-soil areas for seeds. We measured the percent recovery of known masses of seeds by the vacuum sampler in relation to 4 experimentally controlled factors (i.e., seed-size class, sample mass, soil moisture class, and vacuum time) with 2–4 levels per factor. We also measured processing time of samples in the laboratory. Across all experimental factors, seed recovery averaged 88.4% and varied little (CV = 0.68%, n = 474). Overall, mean time to process a sample was 30.3 ± 2.5 min (SE, n = 417). Our estimate of seed recovery rate (88%) may be used to adjust estimates for incomplete seed recovery, or project–specific correction factors may be developed by investigators. Our device was effective for estimating surface abundance of moist-soil plant seeds after dehiscence and before habitats were flooded.

White-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) may cause more damage than any other species of wildlife. These damages include crop loss, automobile and aviation collisions, disease transmission, environmental degradation, and destruction of ornamental plantings. One practical method of controlling deer damage is the use of exclusionary fences. The relatively high cost of labor and materials required to build effective fences has limited most applications to the protection of orchards, vegetable farms, other high-value resources, and mitigation of human health and safety risks. Improvements in fence technology resulting in less expensive, yet effective fences have expanded the use of fences to manage damage caused by deer. Fences typically installed to manage white-tailed deer damage include wire or plastic mesh, electrified high-tensile steel wire, and electrified polytape or polyrope fence. We reviewed the scientific literature on fencing to determine which fence designs would be the most effective for excluding deer in a variety of situations.

Some methods currently used to extract teeth from live-captured deer for aging may not adequately address pain relief. We discuss characteristics of currently available pharmacological agents with respect to analgesic properties and describe a quick, simple, and effective process that mitigates pain for extracting teeth from live-captured deer. (WILDLIFE SOCIETY BULLETIN 34(1):201–202; 2006)

The design and testing of an electronic device, MateID (Electronics Laboratory, Department of Conservation, Wellington, New Zealand), for recording close proximity between wild animals is described. Comprising a receiver and data logger in a collar mounting, the device detects period-coded radiotags at distances below 40 cm. It stores time-stamped identification data in memory for up to 2 years for later down-loading to computer for processing. Bench trials of the MateID device confirmed its reliability. It recorded presence of 98.9% of stationary single tags placed within 40 cm and identified all of these correctly. However, no tags were identified where ≥2 tags were present within a 40-cm range. Trials on MateID devices attached to neck collars on captive brushtail possums (Trichosurus vulpecular) were conducted in large pens. Simultaneous video recordings confirmed that the devices accurately recorded all observed approaches (closer than 40 cm) by possums carrying MateID collars to a bait feeder fitted with a radiotransmitter. Contacts between a radiotagged possum and three carrying a MateID device also were accurately recorded. The device “MateID” provides a new technique for studying social and mating systems of free-ranging vertebrates. It also can be useful for monitoring or research of captive animals.

The accuracy of using radiotelemetry for studying animal movements has not been fully investigated. Although telemetry is a technological advance for tracking animals, it may lack the accuracy of thread trailing for quantifying distance traveled. The objective of this study was to compare straight-line distance between consecutive telemetry locations of eastern box turtles (Terrapene carolina carolina) and actual distances traveled between those locations using thread trailers. We randomly selected 20 radiotagged turtles per week. We radiolocated each of these turtles and attached a thread trailer for 24 ± 3 hours. We used the beginning and ending global positioning system (GPS) locations to calculate the straight-line distance, and we compared this distance to the actual distance the turtle moved (thread length). Thread-trailing distances were greater than telemetry distances (P < 0.001). We recommend that future studies investigating box turtle movements use thread trailing, though radiotelemetry may be accurate for coarse analysis of direct-route movements.

There is a need to improve the quantity and quality of data in biodiversity monitoring projects. We compared an automated digital recording system (ADRS) with traditional methods (point-counts and transects) for the assessment of birds and amphibians. The ADRS proved to produce better quantity and quality of data. This new method has 3 additional advantages: permanent record of a census, 24 h/d data collection and the possibility of automated species identification.

Monitoring of northern goshawks typically occurs at nest sites, which is an effective approach for obtaining information on nesting activity and reproductive success, but less effective at providing information on goshawk distribution or abundance. In 2002 the United States Department of Agriculture Forest Service began the process of designing a method for monitoring occupancy rates of goshawks over large spatial scales. In 2003 we conducted a field test of the Forest Service's bioregional monitoring design in southwestern Colorado. Our goal was to determine how much it would cost to implement. Average costs for surveying each primary sample unit were $1,060.34 and average per station survey-visit costs were $6.99. It is important to recognize that our primary sample unit survey cost estimate is higher than might be expected on average because our surveys were conducted during a poor nesting year for goshawks. This information will be instrumental to wildlife managers, whether conducting bioregional monitoring or local project level surveys for goshawks (WILDLIFE SOCIETY BULLETIN 34(1):215–217; 2006)

In 2001, I attached tail-mounted transmitters to 41 beaver (Castor canadensis) captured in Rocky Mountain National Park to evaluate if the transmitters (Rothmeyer et al. 2002) would be suitable to conduct long-term life history research. Twenty-one of the transmitters became detached from the tail without evidence of beaver mortality. I was unable to recover and determine the outcome for 9 transmitters because signals originated from the inside of active beaver lodges. Antennas were intact on 7 detached transmitters but were missing and likely chewed-off on 11 others. In conclusion, tail-mounted transmitters for beaver were of limited success in this life history study and are not recommended for long-term monitoring without significant modifications to the original design.

Opportunities for wildlife undergraduates to engage in land conservation planning can bridge the gap between formal academic training and professional wildlife experiences. Land conservation plans are an important component in managing wildlife habitat. In 1995 state legislation offered Texas landowners the opportunity to remain under agricultural valuation (Texas House Bill 1358, Proposition 11, 1-d-1) by designating wildlife management activities as qualifying agricultural practices. To obtain a wildlife management tax valuation, a landowner must have an active, written wildlife management plan. Texas Parks and Wildlife Department (TPWD) biologists often provide technical guidance to landowners in this process. Allowing wildlife undergraduates to have an active role in this process offers a unique opportunity for them to gain practical “hands-on” experiences while improving their writing skills. Students enrolled in Wildlife Habitat Management and Conservation (WFSC 406) work in groups (3–4 students) to develop a management plan for 3 local landowners. In addition to writing an actual management plan, students gain experience in land surveying, vegetation sampling, GIS/GPS technology, and public speaking. Landowners receive 3 peer-reviewed management plans they can select from to implement on their property. Students assist TPWD biologists and Texas Cooperative Extension staff in providing technical guidance to local landowners. Wildlife education can be enhanced by integrating land conservation planning in the classroom via partnerships with natural resource agencies and landowners.

Government conservation agencies in New Zealand and the Australian state of Victoria spend 20% and 4%, respectively, of their annual budgets to manage a small part of the problem caused by introduced mammals. Managers' uncertainty about the optimal strategies for applying pest control has led to major differences in management practices within the single pest control programs in both countries. Monitoring under a trial-and-error approach has not removed uncertainty but has led managers to support the application of adaptive management for their pest control. Control of brushtail possums (Trichosurus vulpecula) in New Zealand and red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) in Victoria, Australia, is conducted over large areas in many operations, but individual managers apply different control regimes based on the perceived benefits and opportunity costs. We report on the processes used to set up the first adaptive management experiments in pest control in New Zealand or Australia that combine the competing models approach (used when only a single management regime can be applied at one time) with an experimental approach (made possible when different management regimes are applied simultaneously in different places) with the aim of elucidating benefits and costs of the different strategies used to control the 2 pests.

Many new terms have come into use for intra-species groups of animals defined with genetic criteria including subspecies, evolutionarily significant units, evolutionary units, management units, metapopulations, distinct population segments, populations, and subpopulations. These terms have redundant meanings and can lead to confusion for biologists, managers, and policy makers. I propose that for wildlife management we can simplify intra-species terminology and use only the terms subspecies, populations, and subpopulations. These 3 terms have roots in evolutionary and population biology and can incorporate genetic, demographic, and geographic considerations.

Context is an important component of research design. But too often there is a noticeable gap between what it is that we actually study and the domain of the original problem or phenomenon that we presumably want to learn about. Herein, I examine the context of research, reductionism, and biological emergence. My goal is to encourage improvement in showing evidence that knowledge gained from research will fit within the context of the issue originally used to rationalize the investigation.