We investigated home-range and habitat preferences of Sonoran pronghorn (Antilocapra americana sonoriensis) from 1994 to 2002 as part of a recovery program. Home-range size varied from 43–2,873 km², with an average of 511± 665.3 (SD) km² (n=22). We classified vegetation into 3 associations: creosote (Larrea tridentata)–bursage (Ambrosia spp.; CB), palo verde (Cercidium spp.)–mixed cacti (PV), or palo verde–chain fruit cholla (Opuntia fulgida; PVC). Individual prong-horn did not use vegetation associations similarly to each other (χ²₄₂ = 779, P< 0.001). Most pronghorn (n=17) used PVC more than expected and used CB and PV less than or equal to availability. Those pronghorn (n=5) that used CB more than expected or equal to availability had significantly larger home ranges (x̄= 1,321 km²) than those that preferred PVC (x̄ =272.7 km², t=86, P=0.028). We pooled locations of all pronghorn to determine the influence of season and range condition (based on rainfall) on vegetation association preference. Range condition and season influenced vegetation association use by pronghorn. Pronghorn used CB more than expected during the cool season of 1997–1998. Pronghorn used washes more than expected in all seasons and range conditions (χ²=277, P< 0.001). This information is useful to managers planning recovery actions (i.e., forage enhancement, water development, and captive breeding).

The Sonoran pronghorn (Antilocapra americana sonoriensis) population in the United States declined to ≤33 animals in January 2003. Low population numbers and unstable recruitment are concerns for biologists managing this subspecies. We examined habitat use by pronghorn from 1999 to 2002 on a portion of the Barry M. Goldwater Range (BMGR) used for military exercises. We overlaid locations of pronghorn (n=1,203) on 377 1-km² blocks within the North (NTAC) and South Tactical Ranges (STAC), BMGR; we classified vegetation associations and disturbance status (e.g., airfields, targets, roads) for each block. Locations of pronghorn were distributed in proportion to vegetation associations on NTAC and STAC. Sightings of pronghorns were biased toward disturbed blocks, with 73% of locations of pronghorn occurring in proximity to mock airfields, high-explosive hills (e.g., targets for live high-explosive bombs and rockets), other targets, and roads. Disturbed landscapes on the BMGR may attract Sonoran pronghorn by creating favorable forage. Habitat manipulations simulating the effects of military disturbances on the landscape (e.g., improved forage) may improve remaining Sonoran pronghorn habitat.

A population of endangered Sonoran pronghorn (Antilocapra americana sonoriensis) exists in the United States, and 2 populations exist in Mexico. Because of the vulnerability of small, remnant populations of this subspecies to stochastic events, an important aspect of recovery planning is identifying suitable areas for establishment of new populations. To support translocation efforts, we developed landscape-level Classification and Regression Tree (CART) and logistic regression models of potential Sonoran pronghorn habitat in southwestern Arizona through a 2-part modeling process. First, we used approximately half of Sonoran pronghorn locations (total n=3,219, collected from 1994 to 2002 from radiocollared animals in the United States) and unused points (total n=3,142, randomly generated in areas within the range of Sonoran pronghorn below 21% slope, but >1.6 km from pronghorn locations) to create habitat models from 5 explanatory variables (i.e., slope, aspect, biome, distance to wash, and soil category). We validated models with the second half of pronghorn and unused points. Both models determined whether areas would or would not be used by Sonoran pronghorn based upon values of explanatory variables at Sonoran pronghorn locations and unused points. The CART model correctly identified 63% of pronghorn locations and 65% of unused points. The logistic regression model correctly identified 57% of pronghorn locations and 62% of unused points. Second, we created a predictive Geographic Information System (GIS) map of Sonoran pronghorn habitat and applied it to the evaluation area. Both models identified >12,000 km² of potential habitat for Sonoran pronghorn on the evaluation area. Our models are a first step toward identifying potential translocation sites for Sonoran pronghorn. Potential translocation sites should be further evaluated with respect to habitat factors not included in our models, including barriers to pronghorn movements, water supplies, and forage resources.

Sonoran pronghorn (Antilocapra americana sonoriensis) occur in an arid desert in northwestern Sonora, Mexico and southwestern Arizona; their numbers have declined since 1920. Causes of the decline are largely speculative but include habitat alteration by humans, excessive herbivory by domestic livestock, illegal harvest, and exposure to domestic livestock diseases. We initiated this study to develop information on habitat use and survival to aid in developing recovery strategies for Sonoran pronghorn. We captured 19 Sonoran pronghorn and monitored their movements and habitat use patterns from 1983 through 1991 and compared these locations to random locations to assess habitat use. We also calculated survival. Sonoran pronghorn used the creosote bush (Larrea tridentata)–white bursage (Ambrosia dumosa)–paloverde (Parkinsoniaspp.)–mixed cacti association greater than expected. Locations of Sonoran pronghorn close to water occurred more frequently than random locations, and areas farthest from waters were used less than expected. Sonoran pronghorn used areas within 1 km of roads less than random locations and used locations >1 km from roads as expected or greater than expected as distance from roads increased. Mean annual estimated survival for females and males was 0.96±0.04 and 0.92±0.04, respectively. Sonoran pronghorn had very low mortality rates and the population expanded to levels that likely have not occurred since the 1920s.

We documented adult mortality and fawn recruitment of Sonoran pronghorn (Antilocapra americana sonoriensis) in Arizona. This population is endangered (N<30) and is decreasing due to low fawn recruitment and adult mortality. We radiocollared Sonoran pronghorn to monitor survival and recruitment from 1995–2002. We relocated each radiocollared pronghorn during weekly telemetry flights from a fixed-wing airplane and recorded group composition to determine recruitment. Mortalities detected during flights were investigated as soon as possible (i. e., <48 hours) to document adult mortality. Adult mortality rates varied from 11–83%/year. Adult pronghorn were killed by coyotes (Canis latrans), bobcats (Felis rufus), mountain lions (Puma concolor), capturing efforts, drought, and unknown causes. Fawn mortality varied from year to year and was correlated with the amount and timing of rainfall. Drought may be a major factor in the survival of adults and fawns. A lack of nutritious forage and water, caused by dry conditions, led to high fawn mortality and caused adult mortality during a particularly severe drought. Drought also may indirectly affect adult mortality by causing animals to use areas where predators are more successful. Disease may affect mortality but remains largely uninvestigated. Management applications aimed at increasing fawn recruitment and reducing adult mortality should increase the chances of survival of this species. Providing sources of highly nutritious forage during early spring and summer when fawns are susceptible to poor nutrition may increase their chances of survival. Providing water sources and nutritious forage in areas where predators are less successful may increase both adult and fawn survival. Predator control may be useful in limited situations but likely would be prohibitively expensive, with little chance of making a difference over the entire range of Sonoran pronghorn.

The Sonoran pronghorn (Antilocapra americana sonoriensis) is one of the most endangered ungulates in North America. The use of water to improve its habitat in southwestern Arizona has been limited in part because published reports claimed these desert ungulates do not use freestanding water. Because free-standing water has been beneficial to habitat improvement of other desert ungulates, we set up cameras at anthropogenic waters to see if they were used by pronghorn, examined literature and agency files related to Sonoran pronghorn and water, and interviewed ranchers who have lived and managed livestock in Sonoran pronghorn habitat since the 1930s regarding their observations of pronghorn use of livestock waters. Using direct observation and photographic evidence, we documented Sonoran pronghorn drinking freestanding water. Published reports claiming that Sonoran pronghorn do not drink were erroneous. Ranchers, agency files, and biologists from numerous state and federal agencies documented Sonoran pronghorn drinking. Federal and state agencies should be aggressive in examining how water developments can be used to assist in recovery of endangered Sonoran pronghorn.

The peninsular pronghorn (Antilocapra americana peninsularis) in the Baja California peninsula is an endangered subspecies. We constructed captive breeding facilities in the Vizcaino Desert within the current range of peninsular pronghorn to assist in population recovery. The captive breeding facilities included fences, shade, feeders, an irrigation system, observation towers, housing for caretakers, and a visitor center. We document the initial 6-year cycle of the captive management, 1 step of the recovery effort, from the first capture of 5 fawns in 1998 to 90 captive peninsular pronghorns by the end of 2003. We identified problems with the captive breeding facility (e.g., identification of animals and movements into, and accidents with, fences), but overall the facility has been a success. We projected the first potential translocation of animals into the wild in 2004. If the translocation of captive animals is successful, peninsular pronghorn may begin the recovery process in the wild.

Control of establishing conifers to lessen their impacts on understory is a contentious habitat issue throughout the western United States. Our objective was to model the effect of increasing Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) canopy cover on mountain big sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata vaseyana) canopy cover. We sampled 25 sites, representing different levels of Douglas-fir establishment, within each of 3 southwestern Montana mountain big sagebrush communities. Over all sites, Douglas-fir canopy cover had a significant correlation (r = −0.86; P < 0.001) to mountain big sagebrush canopy cover. Regression models were variable among study areas as linear and curve-linear declines in mountain big sagebrush canopy cover were found. While model validation results indicated that individual study-area models were marginal for predicting relationships for the other study areas, the overall model developed from all sites combined generally predicted individual sites well, especially when mountain big sagebrush cover was <15%. Mountain big sagebrush canopy cover declined from >20% to <15% and <5% as Douglas-fir canopy cover increased beyond 20% and 35%, respectively. At least 92 species of mammals and 93 species of birds having either an obligatory or a facultative relationship with sagebrush are affected to differing degrees by loss of sagebrush cover.

Diving ducks staging on the lower Great Lakes have responded to the introduction and subsequent population increase of zebra mussels (Dreissena polymorpha) by consuming this readily available food. However, nutritional and contaminant-related implications of recent dietary shifts are hindered by the fact that few studies have documented foods consumed by diving ducks before zebra mussels invaded the Great Lakes in 1988. We examined diets of greater scaup (Aythya marila), lesser scaup (Aythya affinis), and long-tailed ducks (Clangula hyemalis) collected from eastern Lake Ontario during autumn 1986 and 1987 to determine differences among the 3 species. Gastropods were the main food item of greater (92% aggregate dry mass) and lesser scaup (86%), but they consumed relatively small amounts (3% and 7%, respectively) of amphipods. In contrast, amphipods made up 66% of the diets of long-tailed ducks; gastropods were 28% of their diet. Amphipod populations have increased and native gastropods decreased in the presence of zebra mussels in the lower Great Lakes, such that zebra mussel invasion likely has had greater dietary implications for scaup than for long-tailed ducks. Dietary shifts from nonfilter-feeding gastropods to filter-feeding zebra mussels likely contributed to elevated contaminant burdens in lesser and greater scaup on the lower Great Lakes. We encourage further research into the diet-, nutrient-, and contaminant-related implications of zebra mussel induced ecological changes to the Great Lakes.

Text.Knowledge of the natal origins of individual birds could provide valuable information for waterfowl conservation and harvest management programs. We used stable isotopes to differentiate birds from major western North America production areas, thereby providing a means of elucidating the natal origins of waterfowl. We used a multi-isotope approach (δ³⁴S, δ²H, δ¹³C, δ¹⁵N) to determine if ducks originating from different geographic areas had unambiguous multi-isotopic signatures. During 1999–2001 we took secondary feathers from prefledged mallard (Anas platyrhynchos) and northern pintail (A. acuta) ducklings from 52 sites in western North America (n = 284). Ducklings from Alaska, northern Canada (YT, NWT), the Prairies (AB, SK, MB, MT, ND, SD), and California could be distinguished based upon their feather isotope values. Geographic patterns in feather isotopes were related to natural gradients produced by biogeochemical cycles and anthropogenic factors such as agrochemical usage. Stable isotopes are naturally occurring markers that may be a useful tool in the effective management of waterfowl populations.

Human activity causes wintering waterfowl to expend energy to avoid humans at a time in their annual cycle when energy conservation is important to survival, migration, and breeding reserves. Understanding the effects of recreational activities on waterfowl is important to managing natural resource areas where migratory birds depend on wetland habitat for resting and feeding. We investigated responses of 7 species of dabbling ducks to 5 different experimental human activities, (a pedestrian, a bicyclist, a truck traveling at 2 different speeds, and an electric passenger tram). Responses of ducks depended on type of disturbance, species, and distance from disturbances. Most birds responded to the treatments. People walking and biking disturbed ducks more than vehicles did. Northern pintail (Anas acuta) was the species least sensitive to disturbance, whereas American wigeon (A. americana), green-winged teal (A. crecca), and gadwall (A. strepera) were most sensitive. Ducks were more likely to fly when closer to sources of disturbance. These results will be helpful to managers making decisions about public use that strive to minimize disturbance of dabbling ducks.

Recovery of the imperiled northern Great Plains population of piping plovers (Charadrius melodus) largely depends on reducing predation on the plover's eggs and chicks, but sources of predation are poorly understood. We examined differences in the productivity of piping plovers managed by various predator exclosure options from central North Dakota to northeastern Montana during 1994–2002 (n=1,288 nest records and n=987 fledgling production records examined). Plover nest success (Mayfield estimate) increased significantly when nests were protected from mammalian predators. However, no further increase in nest success occurred when avian predators also were excluded from nests. This suggests that mammals were more important predators of piping plover eggs than were birds. The percentage of chicks lost between hatching and fledging stages when no exclosures were available to protect chicks (about 50%) was no different than the percentage lost when chicks were protected from mammals. We thus attributed nearly all predation on chicks to avian sources. We identified 5 bird and 8 mammal species or species groups as known or likely predators based on field evidence. Management to reduce local abundance of large gulls (Larus spp.) and American crows (Corvus brachyrhynchos) should be included among the tools available to sustain increased levels of plover reproductive success on prairie alkali lakes.

We reviewed all North American radiotelemetry studies of within-home-range habitat selection by northern goshawks (Accipiter gentilis) and all studies relating territory occupancy and productivity to landscape habitat features. Goshawks selected habitats in the home range with structural characteristics of mature to old-growth forests, such as large trees and high canopy closure. We documented selection of these structures in a number of forest types, including ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa), mixed conifer, lodgepole pine (P. contorta), temperate rainforest, upland hardwood, and boreal forest, suggesting that goshawks are selecting forests for their structure rather than for species composition. Goshawks did not select stands with the greatest prey abundance. Selection for natural openings, edges, and stand diversity was inconclusive. Habitat selection patterns suggest that current goshawk management plans in the western United States may be inadequate.

In contrast to the management of European pheasants (Phasianus spp.), the spatial dynamics and habitat selection of breeding male ring-necked pheasants (P. colchicus) have received little attention in North America. To evaluate these parameters, I radiomarked 95 male pheasants over 5 years (1997–2001) on 2 study areas in eastern South Dakota. In spring 73% of radiomarked pheasants dispersed and moved an average of 3.2±0.3 km (SE) from wintering sites. Home range sizes of breeding male pheasants were bimodally distributed. One group of male pheasants exhibited localized movements and had relatively small (18.4±0.9 ha) home ranges, whereas a second group was intermittently sedentary and mobile and had relatively large (45.4±2.9 ha) home ranges. Males preferred to establish breeding home ranges in association with idled herbaceous and woody cover. The proportional abundance of woody cover decreased the size of male home ranges, whereas higher proportions of cropland resulted in larger pheasant home ranges. Within home ranges male pheasants preferred woody cover to other available habitats. While subjugated males assumed sedentary, submissive roles in Europe, in South Dakota males sought unoccupied spaces on landscapes to establish territories. Complexes of idled herbaceous and woody cover will maximize the capacity of landscapes to support male pheasant territories.

We examined the use of dog shock collars on 2 different wolves (Canis lupus) over a 4-year period to assess whether this system could be used to reduce wolf depredation on livestock. In 1998 we used human-induced shock and determined that the shock collar could keep a depredating wolf off a farm while maintaining normal den- and rendezvous-site attendance, but it did not seem to have a long-term effect on the wolf's behavior. In 1999 we captured a wolf prior to any depredations and used a command center with a beeper that remotely shocked the wolf while also providing aversive stimuli; no depredations occurred in 1999. We used the beeper unit alone in 2000, when only 2 calves were killed. A second wolf was captured in 2001 after depredations began, and although it was kept off the farm, other pack members caused further depredation and were removed from the farm. It appears that in some situations shock collars with a command center and beeper device may be useful for reducing wolf depredations, but more research is needed.

Many studies have related estimates of predator diet to prey detectability in scats, but no studies have examined effects of diet on deterioration of scat in the field and the ability to recognize the species depositing the scat. Scats from captive bobcats (Lynx rufus) fed 1 of 3 diets—(mice [Mus musculus] and rats [Rattus norvegicus], rabbit [Oryctolagus cuniculus], and deer [Odocoileus virginianus])—were used to determine the effect of prey species on the integrity of an exposed scat. Diet affected (P<0.001) mass loss of scats. Mass loss of scats containing mice and rats was similar (P>0.05) to mass loss of scats containing rabbit, but mass loss of scats containing deer was greater (P<0.05) than scat containing mice and rats or rabbit. If mass loss of scat reduces the ability of biologists to identify the species depositing the scat, those scats that lose mass at a faster rate would become unidentifiable sooner. These scats would then not be collected or would not be included in predator-specific diet analyses, which could bias the results (e.g., underrepresent the importance of deer in bobcat diet). We suggest that diet-specific mass loss of scats may occur in other species and that research is needed to evaluate this possibility. Studies also are needed to determine adequate sampling intervals to eliminate effects of mass loss bias.

Perhaps no species elicits more polarized opinions in the United States than the gray wolf (Canis lupus). Both proponents and opponents of wolf recovery use symbolic language in an attempt to persuade others to change their attitudes and values. We used structured phone interviews with 1,300 registered voters to examine the attitudes of people living in Arizona, Colorado, and New Mexico toward a proposed restoration of the gray wolf to the southern Rocky Mountains, and to examine the ability of persuasive arguments to change these attitudes. We found a high level of support for wolf restoration by residents of all 3 states; 64% of respondents favored reestablishing wolves in the southern Rockies, whereas 33% expressed opposition. Support was general across almost all demographic and other groups sampled, the exception being ranchers (44% in favor, 53% opposed). Persuasive arguments had little impact on respondents' attitudes toward wolves and their proposed restoration. Overall support for wolf reestablishment remained high and increased slightly after respondents heard persuasive arguments for and against wolf restoration. Yet most respondents (63.3%) did not change their level of support or opposition to the idea of reestablishing wolves after hearing persuasive arguments. Most people who did change their opinion increased the extremity of their responses, supporting attitudinal theory that predicts that people with strongly held attitudes will increase the extremity of their opinions after receiving more information. The attitudes people hold are critically important to the success of wolf restoration efforts. Although most of the public supports wolf restoration, polarization of the issue remains strong. This polarization poses a significant challenge to wildlife managers. If management agencies decide to pursue wolf restoration in the southern Rockies, efforts to mitigate strongly polarized positions should be given a high priority. Alternatively, if those agencies choose not to restore wolves, they likely will face significant controversy as unsatisfied wolf proponents make their feelings known.

American black bears (Ursus americanus) have recolonized western Texas following extirpation in the mid-1900s. Knowledge of winter ecology of black bears is important for conservation and management because denning, parturition, and early cub development occur during this period. We monitored 13 radiocollared black bears for 22 den-years in Big Bend National Park (BBNP) during 1998–2003. All pregnant females (n=6), 2 females with yearlings, 7 subadults, and 1 adult male denned. Three females with yearlings remained active during winter 1998–1999. We located 4 cave dens, 5 ground dens, and 6 rock-pile dens. Volume and elevation of den sites averaged 2.00 m³ (SD=1.51) and 1,800 m (SD=346), respectively. Mean (±SD) dates of den entrance and emergence for 5 pregnant females were 30 December±17 days and 27 April±21 days, respectively, producing a mean denning period of 118±29 days. Pregnant females exited dens later (P= 0.003) and denned longer (P=0.02) than solitary females and males. Black bears in western Texas used den sites located in higher elevations that were remote and highly defensible. A den-habitat model described less than 56 km² of suitable denning habitat within and bordering BBNP. Resource managers should reduce visitor and management activities in and around potential denning areas during winter.

Consumption of feces (coprophagy) may alter findings of dietary studies and population estimates based on fecal analyses, but its magnitude is poorly understood. We investigated seasonal incidence of scat removal on Fort Riley, Kansas, from January through December 2000. We placed feces from captive bobcats (Lynx rufus), captive coyotes (Canis latrans), and free-ranging coyotes randomly on tracking stations in forest and prairie landscapes to determine rates of scat removal by local wildlife. Rates of removal of feces from captive bobcats, captive coyotes, and free-ranging coyotes varied from 7% during spring to 50% during summer. We identified opossums (Didelphis virginiana) as the most common species present at stations where scat removal occurred. Feces may be an important seasonal source of food for opossums and may provide seasonal dietary supplements for other species. Other factors responsible for disturbance of feces included a woodrat (Neotoma floridana) caching coyote feces, removal of captive coyote feces by free-ranging coyotes accompanied by deposition of fresh feces, a bobcat burying a captive bobcat sample and depositing fresh feces, and rain storms. Dietary studies based on fecal analyses could be biased by scat removal, assuming that contents in feces are representative of the proportion of foods consumed.

Cougar (Puma concolor) management has been hindered by inability to identify population trends. We documented changes in sex and age of harvested cougars during an experimentally induced reduction in population size and subsequent recovery to better understand the relationship between sex–age composition and population trend in exploited populations. The cougar population in the Snowy Range, southeast Wyoming, was reduced by increased harvest (treatment phase) from 58 independent cougars (>1 year old) (90% CI=36–81) in the autumn of 1998 to 20 by the spring of 2000 (mean exploitation rate=43%) and then increased to 46 by spring 2003 following 3 years of reduced harvests (mean exploitation rate=18%). Pretreatment harvest composition was 63% subadults (1.0–2.5 years old), 23% adult males, and 14% adult females (2 seasons; n=22). A reduction in subadult harvest, an initial increase followed by a reduction in adult male harvest, and a steady increase in adult female harvest characterized harvest composition trends during the treatment phase. Harvest composition was similar at high and low densities when harvest was light, but proportion of harvested subadult males increased at low density as they replaced adult males removed during the treatment period (high harvest). While sex ratio of harvested cougars alone appears of limited value in identifying population change, when combined with age class the 2 appear to provide an index to population change. Composition of the harvest can be applied to adaptively manage cougar populations where adequate sex and age data are collected from harvested animals.

Collection of carnivore feces is common in wildlife ecology studies, but misidentification of scats can compromise data quality. We tested the ability of observers to identify coyote (Canis latrans) feces in the Alaska Range from 2000–2002. We extracted DNA from 834 fecal samples and used an unambiguous mtDNA analysis to differentiate coyote scats from those of sympatric carnivores. We successfully amplified DNA from 78% of the extracts, and 92% of these samples were from coyotes. We rated our certainty level when collecting scats in the field, and the proportion correctly identified matched well with expected proportions. For example, 100% of scats that we rated “100% certain” were from coyotes (n=129), 96% of scats rated “95% certain” were from coyotes (n=174), and 88% of scats rated “90% certain” were from coyotes (n=62). Thus, we demonstrate that trained observers can identify coyote scats in the field with accuracy that should be sufficient for diet studies, even in the presence of other similar-sized carnivores. Rating observer certainty is useful for later analyses because researchers can decide what level of uncertainty is acceptable for their purposes and exclude samples accordingly.

Assessment of the body composition and body condition of animals in the wild is an important aspect of animal ecology. We were interested in understanding the seasonal changes in body condition in order to investigate the effects of adaptive strategies on life histories of animals. We investigated the merit of morphometric condition indices and bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA) to predict fat reserves in striped skunks (Mephitis mephitis, n = 26). We took BIA and morphometric measurements following chemical immobilization in the field and completed chemical analyses of whole carcasses postmortem. We determined relationships between body lipid and water using multiple linear regression techniques and performed model selection using Akaike's Information Criterion (AIC). Bioelectric volume (L²/R_s) and chest circumference (CC) best predicted total body water (TBW=–1.1 0.058*CC 0.25 * L²/R_s; r2 = 0.91, SEE=0.15, P <0.001). Lean dry mass (LDM) was significantly correlated with total body mass (LDM=0.26 0.12 * TBM; r²=0.63, SEE=0.13, P<0.001). Total body fat (TBF) can then be estimated using total body water and lean dry mass by the equation TBF=TBM–TBW–LDM. We found condition indices to be poor indicators of body condition in striped skunks. Use of BIA on striped skunks has implications for a fast and accurate method to estimate body condition under field conditions.

Red deer (Cervus elaphus) and roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) are 2 of the most numerous wild ungulate species in Europe. They are sympatric over a large part of their total geographic range. There are no reliable techniques for differentiating between them when studies are based on hair or fecal sampling in the field where the 2 species' ranges overlap. Here we describe a test for differentiating between red and roe deer hair samples using the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) method by amplifying a section of the mitochondrial DNA D-loop, which differs in length between species.

Reliable estimates of white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) population parameters are needed for effective population management. We used radiotelemetry to compare survival and cause-specific mortality rates between male and female white-tailed deer and present reproductive data for a high-density deer herd in the central Appalachians of West Virginia during February 1999–May 2002. We recorded 343 winter deer captures. Our capture rate of 78 fawns/100 adult females was similar to visual observations of known fawns and adult female deer during winter. In-utero reproductive rates of adults (≥1 year old) was 138 fawns:100 females, based on a sample of 44 female deer. We radiomonitored 148 female and 43 male deer during the 3-year study. Yearling male annual mortality rates for human-induced and natural mortality were 0.63 (SD=0.09) and 0.12 (SD=0.12), respectively. Conversely, among yearling females, annual mortality rates for human-induced and natural mortality were 0.09 (SD = 0.06) and 0.05 (SD = 0.03), respectively. Adult male annual mortality rates for human-induced and natural mortality were 0.73 (SD=0.16) and 0.00, respectively, whereas adult female annual mortality rates for human-induced and natural mortality were 0.04 (SD = 0.01) and 0.08 (SD = 0.02), respectively. Our observed survival, mortality, capture, and reproductive data are characteristic of a population shaped by moderate fawn recruitment and excessive harvest of yearling male deer. We recommend a reduction in female deer to promote forest regeneration and protect biodiversity in this region. We believe this can best be achieved by liberalizing antlerless harvest regulations, through hunter education and corporate landowner incentive programs.

Proper management of white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) populations is important because of the popularity of this species for sport hunting and the ecological and economic damage deer can cause. Managers and biologists have relied for decades on relatively inexpensive and easily collected data from hunter-harvested deer to provide information for making harvest management decisions. We obtained long-term (15–31 years duration, median = 26 years) data sets for 9 populations in the southeastern United States that spanned several physiographic provinces and a wide range of densities (3–32 deer/km²) that varied by a factor of 1.67–5.50 within populations over the study period. Recruitment models using a simple quadratic expression related fawn density to adult female and total adult densities. Models included densities lagged 1 and 2 years in addition to contemporary data. Recruitment models indicated that density-dependent dynamics were operative for 8 of the 9 populations. While the 2-year lag was the preferred context for these models, the 1-year lag was nearly as strong, indicating that recruitment responded to changes in density more quickly than physical condition. Validations using data from 3 additional, independent populations showed that predicted and observed densities were highly correlated (r = 0.45–0.96). That one population on exceptionally poor habitat did not show a significant density-dependent response for recruitment may suggest that some habitats are too poor for such a process to be operative or detectable. The efficacy of time lags also should serve to caution managers not to look for immediate responses in herds. Although the populations examined in this study provided long-duration data that undoubtedly captured a great deal of stochasticity resulting from density-independent factors, significant density-dependent relationships were still detected.

Harvest efficiency for white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) primarily is dependent upon the density and distribution of hunters. Therefore, factors affecting hunter distribution (i.e., human habitations) likely will influence harvest efficiency. We compiled rural structure maps for 98 of 102 Illinois counties. Lands within 274 m of rural structures were considered a potential hunter “restriction zone”. based on Illinois hunting regulations. We determined deer-habitat composition within the restriction zone and within each county and then compared it to variations in harvest efficiency. We evaluated the influence of this zone on individual hunter distribution through an aerial survey. We evaluated hunter distances to nearest structures, densities within the restriction zone, and factors associated with hunter presence or absence. Over 4 million ha (30%) of the rural Illinois landscape falls within the potential hunter restriction zone. Restriction zone composition differed from the remainder of counties for forage and marginal habitat classes. Variables associated with the convergence of human development and deer habitat explained a major proportion of variation in harvest efficiency. As rural development increased and protected more deer habitat, harvest efficiency decreased. In areas surveyed, human dwellings reduced hunter use of surrounding areas, thus lowering hunting pressure in the hypothesized “restriction zone”. Increases in human development will make it more difficult to manage deer successfully with traditional methods. Managers will be required to identify likely areas of conflict in which nontraditional deer management would be most effective; predictive models will aid this process.

Approximately 20% of the United States population suffers from some form of disability. In the United States, leisure activities such as hunting are becoming more accessible to persons with disabilities, though little research has been published on this topic. Research has been conducted in South Dakota to categorize deer (Odocoileus spp.) hunters based on their motivation for hunting and to collect information about hunter satisfaction. This information has proven valuable to the state management agency, facilitating changes in management that increased satisfaction of the majority of hunters. We conducted a study in Alabama, which included both hunters with disabilities and nondisabled hunters, to determine whether motivations and satisfactions differed between groups. Hunter groups displayed some statistical differences, but practical differences were not found. This suggested that management agencies need not differentiate between groups when making decisions related to the motivations and satisfactions of these constituents.

Chemical repellents sometimes can provide a nonlethal alternative for reducing wildlife impacts to agricultural production. In late summer and autumn 2002, we evaluated Bird Shield™ (active ingredient: methyl anthranilate, Bird Shield Repellent Corporation, Spokane, Wash.) as a blackbird (Icteridae) repellent in Missouri rice fields and North Dakota sunflower fields. We selected 5 pairs of ripening rice fields in southeastern Missouri and randomly allocated treatments (treated and control) within pairs. The repellent was aerially applied by fixed-winged aircraft at the recommended label rate and volume (1.17 L Bird Shield/ha and 46.7 L/ha, respectively); 1 field received 2X the label rate. We observed no difference in average bird activity (birds/minute) between treated and control fields over the 3-day post-treatment period (P = 0.503). We used reversed-phase liquid chromatography to quantify methyl anthranilate residues in treated fields. The maximum concentration of methyl anthranilate in rice samples was 4.71 µg/g. This concentration was below reported threshold values that irritate birds. In North Dakota we selected 6 pairs of sunflower fields used by foraging blackbirds. We randomly selected 1 field from each pair for 2 aerial applications of Bird Shield at the label-recommended rate ∼1 week apart. The remaining 6 fields served as controls. Daily bird counts, starting the first day of application and continuing for 5–7 days after the second application, showed similar numbers of blackbirds within treated and control fields (P = 0.964). We observed no difference in sunflower damage within treated and control fields (P = 0.172) prior and subsequent to the treatment. Bird Shield was not effective for repelling blackbirds from ripening rice and sunflower fields.

Collisions between birds and aircraft (birdstrikes) pose a major threat to aviation safety. Different species pose different levels of threat; thus, identification of the most hazardous species can help managers identify the level of hazard and prioritize mitigation efforts. Dolbeer et al. (2000) assessed the hazard posed by birds to civilian aircraft by analyzing data from the Federal Aviation Administration's (FAA) Wildlife Strike Database to rank the hazardous species and species groups. A similar analysis has not been done for the military but would be useful and necessary. Military flight characteristics differ from those of civilian flights. During the period 1985–1998, birdstrikes cost the United States Air Force (USAF) an average of $35 million/year in damage. Using the USAF Birdstrike Database, we selected and evaluated each species or species group by the number of strikes recorded in each of 3 damage categories. We weighted damage categories to reflect extent and cost of damage. The USAF Birdstrike Database contained 25,519 records of wildlife strikes in the United States. During the period 1985–1998, 22 (mean =1.6/year) Class-A birdstrikes (>$1,000,000 damage, loss of aircraft, loss of life, or permanent total disability) were sustained, accounting for 80% of total monetary losses caused by birds. Vultures (Cathartes aura, Coragyps atratus, Caracara cheriway) were ranked the most hazardous species group (Hazard Index Rank [HIR]=127) to USAF aircraft, followed by geese (Branta canadensis, Chen caerulescens, HIR = 76), pelicans (Pelecanus erythrorhynchos, P. occidentalis, HIR=47), and buteos (Buteo sp., HIR=30). Of the smaller flocking birds, blackbirds and starlings (mostly Agelaius phoeniceus, Euphagus cyanocephalus, Molothrus ater, Sturnus vulgaris, HIR = 46), horned larks (Eremophila alpestris, HIR=24), and swallows (Families Hirundinidae, Apodidae, HIR= 23) were species groups ranked highest. Coupling these results with local bird census data to adjust hazard rank indices to specific locations can facilitate hazard management and lead to meaningful reductions in hazards and costs associated with birdstrikes.

In 2001 the Colorado Division of Wildlife (CDOW) began writing a conservation plan for shortgrass prairie species including the black-tailed prairie dog (Cynomys ludovicianus), partly in response to a petition filed to list the black-tailed prairie dog as a Threatened Species and a finding made by the United States Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) that a listing was warranted but precluded. To determine the status of the species in Colorado, acreage of active black-tailed prairie dog colonies was estimated in eastern Colorado during June-August 2002, using aerial line intercept methods. We stratified the survey by county boundaries based on imperfect prior knowledge of colony areas by county and computed the proportion of each line intersecting active prairie dog colonies. Active colonies were defined as colonies with prairie dogs observed from the air or fresh digging at burrow entrances. For 131,615 km² surveyed, estimated area of active colonies was 255,398 ha, with a 95% confidence interval of ±9.5%, indicating that 1.94% of the surveyed range was occupied. This estimate may be biased low because some active colonies might have been misclassified as inactive or because some active colonies might not have been spotted when flown over. In contrast, this estimate may be biased high because some active colonies included in the survey may be active in only a portion of the colony considered as intersecting the survey line. However, our estimate for Colorado was consistent with the estimated area of active black-tailed prairie dog colonies in Wyoming from, where 2.02% of 66,085 km² was estimated to be occupied.

The value of riparian zones to nongame birds and islands to nesting waterfowl has been well documented. Therefore, we predicted that nongame birds would have higher densities and nest success on riverine islands because they would be better protected from predators. Furthermore, because larger islands may support resident mammalian predators, we hypothesized that nest success would decrease with increasing island size. In 1998 and 1999, we compared breeding bird density, nest success, habitat, and potential nest predators between islands (n=44) and mainland sites (n=44) on the middle Snake River in Idaho and Oregon, USA. Ground-, shrub-, and tree-nesting guilds had higher densities on islands, while island was a significant predictor in 5 of 10 species-habitat models. Despite this trend, neither daily survival rates of nests by nesting guilds or proportion of riparian cover types were different between islands and mainland sites. We also could detect no relationship between nest-survival rates and island size. Our camera study on artificial nests demonstrated that nongame-bird nests were available to a wider range of predators than those typically identified in waterfowl studies. Nest predators such as deer mice (Permomyscus maniculatus) and squirrels (Sciurus spp.) often were resident on even the smallest islands. Black-billed magpies (Pica hudsonia) likely were a major nest predator along the Snake River, where they were found in extremely high densities. We also observed a trend toward higher brown-headed cowbird (Molothrus ater) densities and parasitism rates on islands. Influence of landscape-level factors, such as river morphology and land use, on the distribution and abundance of nongame birds and nest predators requires additional research. Our research demonstrated that agencies managing islands for nesting waterfowl should not assume that those same islands also provide refuge for nongame birds.

Grassland bird populations in the eastern United States have become increasingly dependent on human-altered grassland habitats such as former hayfields and pastures for nesting. We compared grassland bird nest success and nest placement on former hayfields (n = 3) and former pastures (n = 3) and on mowed and unmowed areas on the Canaan Valley National Wildlife Refuge (CVNWR), West Virginia, 1999–2000. We located 83 nests of the 4 dominant grassland species: bobolinks (Dolichonyx oryzivorus; 19% nest success), Savannah sparrows (Passerculus sandwichensis; 34%), red-winged blackbirds (Agelaius phoeniceus; 21%), and eastern meadowlarks (Sturnella magna; 70%). Vertical density of vegetation was taller at successful bobolink nests and maximum height was greater at successful Savannah sparrow nests than at unsuccessful nests. Eastern meadowlarks chose nest sites with more standing dead vegetation, deeper litter, and a greater maximum height of vegetation. Although there were no differences in nest success between mowed and unmowed treatments, mowing some fields at the conclusion of the breeding season may provide long-term advantages to grassland bird nesting success by maintaining former fields as grassland habitats.

We conducted a capture–recapture study within Ozark forests in south-central Missouri to evaluate the short-term (2–5 years after timber removal) effects of even-and uneven-aged forest management on Peromyscus spp. mice inhabiting north-and east-facing slopes of forest compartments. This study was part of the Missouri Ozark Forest Ecosystem Project, a 100-year experiment investigating landscape-scale impacts of forest management on forest flora and fauna. Changes between pretreatment (1994–1995) and post-treatment (1998–2001) numbers indicated that forest management had a short-term effect on mice. Even-aged management, and to a lesser extent uneven-aged management, appeared to dampen a natural decline in mouse abundance observed on no-harvest sites. Numbers on even-aged sites were greater than those on uneven-aged sites, which were greater than numbers on no-harvest sites following treatment. Both even-and uneven-aged forest management may positively affect Peromyscus spp. numbers, but this trend may change as additional trees are removed.

We describe a simple, inexpensive system for locating satellite-received transmitters (PTTs) in the field using a rotating antenna, programmable radio receiver, signal mixer, and a laptop computer with audio and spreadsheet software. This system allows the user to triangulate the position of the transmitter and can be used to find transmitters that are either lost or on animals that are not moving often, even when the signals are too weak to be detected by the Argos satellite system. By locating PTTs, one may be able to determine the fate of the animals carrying the tags and retrieve the tags for relatively inexpensive refurbishing.

We evaluated the accuracy of 2 aerial survey techniques over 4 large enclosures (6.0–29.4 km²) where the deer (Odocoileus virginianus) population was reconstructed using hunting harvest and winter mortality data. We conducted surveys (n = 8) along equally spaced parallel lines. Six surveys using the double-count technique involved 2 independent observers located on the same side of a helicopter who simultaneously counted animals over narrow plots (60-m width). Four of these surveys yielded deer densities 64–83% of assumed densities (based on the reconstructed population). The 2 other surveys had accuracies of 37 and 46%, respectively, and were judged unreliable because the sighting probability of the front observer was <0.40. We conducted 2 surveys with a thermal infrared sensor. One survey had the highest accuracy (89%) among all surveys while the other gave poor results (54% accuracy). We concluded that when sighting probabilities of observers exceed 0.45 of deer groups, double-count surveys provided valid estimations of densities for management purposes, although 1 deer out of 4 was missed on average. Because of closed forest canopy, thermal infrared sensing of deer along systematic survey lines was not a reliable technique.

To refine and expand the accuracy of a potential technique for aging sandhill cranes (Grus canadensis), we investigated wing molt in 1,076 migratory and nonmigratory cranes captured in Florida between 1978 and 1997. The annual mode of primary and secondary flight feather replacement was incomplete, resulting in a pattern of varying age feathers that, along with other plumage characteristics, can be used to separate sandhill cranes into juvenile and 3 post-juvenile age groups. Juvenile cranes had even-age flight feathers and juvenile primary and secondary coverts. First-year subadults had even-aged primaries, and only the most distal primary coverts were still juvenile. Also, distal and most of the proximal secondaries were even-aged. Second-year subadults had even-aged distal primaries with a mixture of ages in the proximal primaries and had replaced more than half of all the secondaries. Adults had replaced some of both the distal and proximal primaries, giving the outer flight feathers a mixture of feather ages, and they had mixed-age distal and proximal secondaries. When used as an aging tool in the field, 92.6% of 109 recaptured post-juvenile aged cranes could be accurately assigned into one of the older age classes.

Long-term investigations of wild ungulates often dictate that telemetry collars on specific individuals be replaced. We described and evaluated the use of aerial telemetry to facilitate recapture of individual ungulates. Capture of marked animals was much more efficient using fixed-wing telemetry when compared to helicopter telemetry. Total time to capture (P=0.012) and pursuit time (P=0.002) differed significantly, but no difference (P=0.434) in body temperature of mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus) occurred at time of capture. Application of fixed-wing telemetry during net-gun captures of ungulates resulted in greater safety for capture crews and study animals and in potentially substantial monetary savings.

Detailed studies of the behavior and location of free-ranging animals can be considerably enhanced with the use of animal-mounted devices. A few devices, such as data loggers, have to be recovered to access the data, whereas satellite tags or radiocollars often are left on the animal after the study period. Recovery of devices, which usually necessitates animal recapture, can be problematic, especially in larger species. This paper presents a new, non-electronic release mechanism, requiring no power source on the animal, that was successfully tested on South American sea lions (Otaria flavescens) in Argentina during the 2003–2004 austral summer. The system has potential for many larger terrestrial or aquatic animals.

The relationship between population density and range size has long been debated. While many studies have documented varying responses in range size to changes in population densities, most have been the result of experimental manipulation. We examined the effects of long-term density changes in Florida Key deer (Odocoileus virginianus clavium) on range and core-area sizes. We radiocollared Key deer as part of 2 separate research projects conducted December 1968–June 1972, and January 1998–December 2001. We used a total of 96 (females, n=62; males, n=34) and 163 (females, n=88; males, n=75) radiocollared Key deer to calculate annual and seasonal ranges and core areas, respectively. Season and age were not important factors in describing ranges and core areas of Key deer, while sex and period (early vs. current study) were important. On average, male annual ranges (x̄=221 ha, current; x̄=388 ha, early) were greater than female annual ranges (x̄=42 ha, current; x̄=101 ha, early), which might explain higher male mortality due to roadkills. Early ranges and core areas were greater (≈2x) than current ranges and core areas. We suggest that increased deer densities may have resulted in a decrease in Key deer ranges. Other factors influencing changes in Key deer ranges included increased habitat quality and Key deer domestication over the last 30 years.

Camera-trapping is an increasingly popular technique for surveying wildlife in the tropics. However, camera-trap damage caused by elephants (Elephas spp.) poses significant financial and data losses. We describe the construction and use of an armored shell for the Camtrakker® camera-trap (CamTrak South, Watkinsville, Ga.). The addition of armoring doubled the weight of the unit but eliminated damage by elephants. We recommend armoring for camera-traps in regions containing elephants or other large carnivores, and where human theft may occur.

Previous work indicated that automated camera traps may be useful in estimating predation risk among different microhabitats for mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus). We tested the prediction that the number of photographs taken by automated camera traps was inversely related to the amount of food left by deer in feeding boxes or giving up densities (GUDs). We positioned camera traps adjacent to standard mule deer feeding boxes placed in open and edge microhabitats of 3 forest types: Douglasfir (Pseudotsuga menziesii), juniper (Juniperus osteosperma), and mountain mahongany (Cercocarpus ledifolius). We compared number of photographs taken with daily GUDs for the boxes for the 2 microhabitats. We found that GUD data of our study coincided with the previous work of lower GUDs in open versus edge microhabitats for Douglas-fir (288.6±17.1 g vs. 389.6±19.4 g; P<0.001) and juniper (218.9±26.3 g vs. 251.9±29.6 g, P=0.027) but not for mountain mahogany (272.4±29.5 g vs. 287.0±32.3 g, P=0.414). We also found significantly more total photos/camera taken in open microhabitat versus edge microhabitat in Douglas-fir (16.2±2.2 vs. 7.4±1.5; P=0.004). More photos/camera were taken in the open versus edge in the juniper forest type (15.6±3.9 vs. 11.5±3.9), but the difference was not significant. There was no difference in photos/camera between the 2 microhabitats in the mountain mahogany (18.4 ± 3.4 vs. 19.3 ± 1.9). Total number of photos/day/box also was significantly related to the GUDs for the 3 forest types (P = 0.002–0.008). The amount of variability explained by regression equations (r²_adjusted) ranged from 22% for Douglas-fir to 29% for juniper. We concluded that the total number of photographs taken does reflect the results of GUD analysis and that automated camera traps could be used to assess predation risk among different microhabitats.

Live traps for beavers (Castor canadensis and C. fiber) will be more important as leg-hold and killer traps become outlawed. But live traps are potentially dangerous to personnel because the safety mechanism permits the trap to shut prematurely. To make these traps safer, we redesigned the safety mechanism so that the handler does not have to reach inside the trap to set it. We separated the (internal) trigger mechanism from the safety mechanism. We installed a safety mechanism on the outside of the trap. The new mechanism is described. We have used it in the field for 6 years and experienced no accidents.

Recently, brown bear (Ursus arctos) viewing has increased in coastal Alaska and British Columbia, as well as in interior areas such as Yellowstone National Park. Viewing is most often being done under conditions that offer acceptable safety to both people and bears. We analyze and comment on the underlying processes that lead brown bears to tolerate people at close range. Although habituation is an important process influencing the distance at which bears tolerate people, other variables also modify levels of bear-to-human tolerance. Because bears may react internally with energetic costs before showing an overt reaction to humans, we propose a new term, the Overt Reaction Distance, to emphasize that what we observe is the external reaction of a bear. In this paper we conceptually analyze bear viewing in terms of benefits and risks to people and bears. We conclude that managers and policy-makers must develop site-specific plans that identify the extent to which bear-to-human habituation and tolerance will be permitted. The proposed management needs scientific underpinning. It is our belief that bear viewing, where appropriate, may promote conservation of bear populations, habitats, and ecosystems as it instills respect and concern in those who participate.

While spending a year working with the Swedish Hunters Association, I discovered that the Swedish language does not have a word analogous to management. Instead, when talking about wildlife, the Swedes use words that have a root in nursing or caretaking. This orientation leads one to think about being partners with nature rather than controllers of nature. I believe this view of nature puts humans as equals with nature where we are part of the man–land community. Our North American wildlife management focus on control often leads to unrealistic goals and practices. I suggest that for a week, wildlife professionals try to call themselves wildlife “caretakers” rather than “managers” and see what difference it makes. I also suggest that we have much to learn by looking at how other societies relate to wildlife and that our North American perspective might benefit from such interactions. The Wildlife Society could do more to help provide such opportunities.

The term “wildlife ranching” has been used to describe many commercial activities associated with wildlife recreation and products. We discuss the advantages and drawbacks of 2 of those activities: fee-hunting and wildlife farming and husbandry. Perhaps the greatest advantage of fee-hunting programs is economic return to the private landowner, which, in turn, provides the landowner incentive and resources to conserve wildlife and wildlife habitat. The greatest drawback is privatization of the North American wildlife resource. Many individuals from the general public as well as professional wildlife biologists fear that commercial activities associated with wildlife recreation and products ultimately will allow a shift from public to private ownership of wildlife, resulting in diminished public interest in wildlife. The advantages of wildlife farming and husbandry include greater productivity of food animals, healthy alternative food sources, product diversification, and economic gains to private landowners. Because wildlife farming and husbandry activities typically focus on exotic big game, many drawbacks have been suggested. Drawbacks include disease introduction, competition and hybridization with native wildlife, range degradation, and pest problems. However, adequate research in many of those areas is lacking. Ultimately, wildlife is a product of the land, subsidized at the expense of the private landowner. Perhaps revenues from wildlife ranching can provide positive incentives to private landowners, resulting in increased wildlife and wildlife habitat conservation and preservation.