The mountain whitefish (Prosopium williamsoni) is a widely distributed salmonid in western North America that has decreased in abundance over portions of its distribution due to anthropogenic disturbances. In this investigation, we examined precision of age estimates derived from scales, pectoral fin rays, and sagittal otoliths from 167 mountain whitefish. Otoliths and pectoral fin rays were mounted in epoxy and cross-sectioned before examination. Scales were pressed onto acetate slides and resulting impressions were examined. Between-reader precision (i.e., between 2 readers), between-reader variability, and reader confidence ratings were compared among hard structures. Coefficient of variation (CV) in age estimates was lowest and percentage of exact agreement (PA-0) was highest for scales (CV = 5.9; PA-0 = 70%) compared to pectoral fin rays (CV =11.0; PA-0 = 58%) and otoliths (CV = 12.3; PA-0 = 55%). Median confidence ratings were significantly different (P ≤ 0.05) among all structures, with scales having the highest median confidence. Reader confidence decreased with fish age for scales and pectoral fin rays, but reader confidence increased with fish age for otoliths. In general, age estimates were more precise and reader confidence was higher for scales compared to pectoral fin rays and otoliths. This research will help fisheries biologists in selecting the most appropriate hard structure to use for future age and growth studies on mountain whitefish. In turn, selection of the most precise hard structure will lead to better estimates of dynamic rate functions.

The native Figeater Beetle, Cotinis mutabilis (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae: Cetoniinae), is known to occur from Texas, New Mexico, Arizona, and California to northern South America. Here we present records from Nevada, where it became established in the late 1960s; from Utah, where it has been found since the late 2000s; and from Colorado, where it was found in 2012. These records indicate a recent northward range extension of the species, which circumvents the Colorado Plateau. The range extension of C. mutabilis has potential positive effects, namely the addition of a new pollinator to those areas, but also potential negative implications if the species damages fruit crops or facilitates damage by the Japanese Beetle, as the closely related Cotinis nitida does.

Diatoms were collected at 165 stream, river, wall seep, and pond/lake sites in 9 counties in northwest and north central Washington, including the Olympic Pennsisula, over a 5-year period. Four hundred and fifteen species in 77 genera were identified. Species assemblages were compared to altitude, physicochemical factors, aquatic habitats, and land use on west and east sides of the North Cascade Range. Species richness averaged 30.5 per site on the west side and 43 on the east side. Diatom species richness showed significant positive correlations to total nitrogen, total phosphorus, pH, specific conductance, channel embeddedness, and water temperature, and a significant negative correlation to percent canopy cover. A multilevel hierarchical clustering model separated streams, rivers, wall seeps, and ponds/lakes into geographic and land-use regions based on diatom assemblages. A multimetric index (diatom tolerance index [DTI]) was developed to determine environmental tolerance levels for diatom species over a large number and variety of sites. The index performed well in distinguishing between the role of embeddedness, total nitrogen, total phosphorus, and specific conductance on the distribution of diatom species and showed close agreement between land use and diatom distribution. These DTI values provide baseline information for monitoring changes in ecosystem health in drainages throughout Washington landscapes. Didymosphenia geminata occurred in 46% of the streams and rivers sampled and ranged from <1% to 27% in relative abundance, but it was not collected in ponds/lakes or wall seeps. Didymosphenia geminata density showed a significant positive correlation to suspended sediment and significant negative correlations to altitude and total nitrogen. This invasive alga attained a higher average relative abundance in rivers compared to streams and occurred in 28% of the sites examined west of the Cascade Range compared to 63% of the sites east of the Cascades.

The genus Nyctinomops comprises 4 species of bats in the free-tailed family Molossidae: Nyctinomops macrotis, Nyctinomops femorosaccus, Nyctinomops aurispinosus, and Nyctinomops laticaudatus. The objective of this study was to use mitochondrial sequence data to test hypotheses of relationship within Nyctinomops. A total of 460 bases of cytochrome b and 686 bases of NADH dehydrogenase were sequenced and analyzed from 22 individuals by use of parsimony, maximum likelihood, and Bayesian methods. Sequences from other molossid genera (Tadarida, Cynomops, and Otomops) were used as outgroups. In addition, a series of Nyctinomops specimens from Peru was re-assessed using morphological and molecular data. Our results agree with previous studies using morphological similarity in the placement of the largest member of the genus, N. macrotis, as sister to the remaining species. Furthermore, both mitochondrial data sets recovered the following relationship for the other members of the genus: (N. aurispinosus (N. laticaudatus, N. femorosaccus)).

Animals that are exposed to environmental stressors may experience chronically elevated glucocorticoid (GC) levels, which can lead to deleterious effects such as immune and reproductive system suppression. Such effects are of special concern in rare species. We measured fecal GC concentrations in endangered San Joaquin kit foxes (Vulpes mocrotis mutica) to assess stress responses in natural and urban habitats. Basal GC levels were significantly higher (P < 0.01) among urban foxes (5.3 ± 2.2 ng cortisol/g dry feces; n = 32) than among foxes in natural habitats (4.7 ± 0.5 ng cortisol/g dry feces; n = 179). In the natural habitat, potential stressors included predation risk, particularly in areas with shrubs where coyote (Canis latrans) abundance was higher. In the urban habitat, the primary stressors were anthropogenic disturbances (e.g., human activity, vehicles). Foxes in natural habitats exhibited acute stress responses when trapped, but exhibited similar mean GC levels between areas of high and low predation risk, suggesting adaptation to the presence of coyotes. Urban foxes did not exhibit acute responses when trapped, suggesting adaptation to the presence of humans. Stress responses based on GC levels indicated that foxes in both natural and urban habitats are habituated to the primary stressors in each habitat, thereby mitigating chronic stress.

Native plants that are able to persist and reproduce in highly disturbed habitats (i.e., “native winners”) may be useful to include in seed mixes when restoring similarly disturbed habitat. Establishing whether these plants produce viable seeds that germinate to a high degree under appropriate conditions is a first step to determining their utility as restoration species. We identified 10 potential native winners at sites degraded by cheatgrass (Bromus tectorum), an invasive annual grass ubiquitous in the Colorado Plateau. We assessed seed viability for each species to determine its potential to reproduce within a cheatgrass-invaded site, and conducted a series of germination and competition experiments to test how effective these species may be when restoring habitat invaded by cheatgrass. All species produced viable seed (ranging from 56% to 100% viability), and the seeds of many species had high germination under a range of fall conditions without cold stratification, which is thought to increase establishment potential in cheatgrass-dominated habitats. We selected the 5 species with the highest germination and conducted a greenhouse competition study to determine their response to cheatgrass presence. The growth of all 5 forb species was suppressed by cheatgrass. However results from germination and competition trials suggest that several species, in particular Acmispon humistratus, Cryptantha fendleri, and Machaeranthera tanacetifolia, may be beneficial for restoration of cheatgrassinvaded sites. These 3 species have higher percent germination (78%–100%) and germination tolerance (0.42–0.63), and were suppressed less by cheatgrass (relative interaction index of negative 0.28–0.49) than a commonly seeded restoration species, Penstemon palmeri. Acmispon humistratus and M. tanacetifolia, in particular, are also desirable candidates for use in restoration because of the ecosystem sendees they provide. In general, natives that grow, reproduce, and tolerate competition in degraded habitats are potential native winners and worthwhile candidates for use in restoration of similarly degraded sites.

Population size and density estimates have traditionally been acceptable ways to track species' response to changing environments; however, species' population centroid elevation has recently been an equally important metric. Packera franciscana (Greene) W.A. Weber and Á. Löve (Asteraceae; San Francisco Peaks ragwort) is a single mountain endemic plant found only in upper treeline and alpine talus habitats of the San Francisco Peaks in northern Arizona and is listed by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service as a Threatened species under the Endangered Species Act. We used 2 recreational trails, which pass through its elevational distribution in the Kachina Peaks Wilderness Area, as sampling transects to estimate population density and distribution because it was not possible to sample further from the trail due to loose volcanic talus and consequent disturbance of P. franciscana plants. Between-year comparisons of ramet density, population centroid elevations, and mid-September flowering or fruiting counts were not significantly different for the Humphrey's Peak Trail in 2010–2011 or the Weatherford Trail from 2009 to 2013. Use of a zero-inflated negative binomial response variable distribution allowed statistical inference for both sampling hits and misses, which gives ecologists and land managers an additional method to monitor changes in distribution and abundance. Population density and elevation of the population centroid estimates for P. franciscana appear to be stable; therefore, the 5-year Weatherford Trail data set may be used as a baseline to track future plant migration on a fine spatiotemporal scale, an approach that could apply to other threatened alpine species.

Sagebrush (Artemisia spp.) in North America is an abundant native plant species that is ecologically and evolutionarily adapted to have a diverse array of biologically active chemicals. Several of these chemicals, specifically polyphenols, have antioxidant activity that may act as biomarkers of biotic or abiotic stress. This study investigated the spatial variation of antioxidant capacity, as well as the relationship between a mammalian herbivore and antioxidant capacity in Wyoming big sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata wyomingensis). We quantified and compared total polyphenols and antioxidant capacity of leaf extracts from sagebrush plants from different spatial scales and at different levels of browsing by a specialist mammalian herbivore, the pygmy rabbit (Brachylagus idahoensis). We found that antioxidant capacity of sagebrush extracts was positively correlated with total polyphenol content. Antioxidant capacity varied spatially within and among plants. Antioxidant capacity in sagebrush was not related to either browsing intensity or duration of association with rabbits. We propose that the patterns of antioxidant capacity observed in sagebrush may be a result of spatial variation in abiotic stress experienced by sagebrush. Antioxidants could therefore provide a biomarker of environmental stress for sagebrush that could aid in management and conservation of this plant in the threatened sagebrush steppe.

Population dynamics and effects of large ungulate disturbances on Winkler cactus (Pediocactus winkleri K.D. Heil) were documented annually over a 20-year time span at one plot within Capitol Reef National Park, Utah. This cactus species was federally listed as threatened in 1998. The study began in 1995 to gain a better understanding of life history aspects and threats to this species. Data were collected annually in early spring and included diameter, condition, reproductive structures, mortality, recruitment, and disturbance by large ungulates. We used odds ratio and probability model analyses to determine effects of large ungulate trampling and weather on these cacti. During the study, plot population declined by 18%, with trampling of cactus, low precipitation, and cold spring temperatures implicated as causal factors. Precipitation and temperature affected flowering, mortality, and recruitment. Large ungulate disturbances increased mortality and reduced the probability of flowering. These results suggest that large ungulate disturbances and recent climate regimes have had an adverse impact on long-term persistence of this cactus.

Several riparian plant community and streambank metrics were evaluated in 5 streams subject to grazing on public lands in central eastern Idaho. In this study, we evaluated 3 attributes associated with the ground cover on streambanks: percent cover of live vegetation, litter, and bare ground; and we evaluated 4 attributes that describe the vegetation community: plant species richness, wetland index value, percent cover of forbs, and percent cover of graminoids. We were particularly interested in how these attributes differed between grazed and ungrazed sites, how the attributes changed through time, and ultimately how the attributes were able to discriminate the effects of livestock grazing. We found that 2 metrics, percent live vegetation and bare ground, consistently reflected a seasonal effect of grazing. Litter cover also consistently reflected overall seasonal differences, but results often were not significant. Results for species richness suggested this metric may be most applicable when measured at the end of the grazing season. In contrast, we found that the wetland index values and percent cover of graminoids and forbs inconsistently reflected changes in vegetation due to grazing through the growing season. Future work should assess these attributes over several years to determine whether they are better able to discern multiyear trends than current status. By understanding which metrics change over the season and whether they change consistently among riparian areas, land managers can determine which metrics are suitable for short- and long-term monitoring of riparian plant communities. A better understanding of the metrics used to measure cattle grazing may help managers act to improve riparian areas while simultaneously providing ranchers options to graze these sensitive ecosystems.

Big brown bats (Eptesicus fuscus) and a close relative of Arizona myotis (Myotis occultus), the little brown bat (Myotis lucifugus) in the eastern United States, are among those species experiencing unprecedented population declines related to white-nose syndrome (WNS). Determining population characteristic baselines for big brown bat and Arizona myotis is paramount in detecting population declines before they reach critical levels. We targeted 2 bat species strongly associated with ponderosa pine forests in northern Arizona. Big brown bats and Arizona myotis readily utilize human-made structures and have a cosmopolitan distribution across the ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa) ecosystem of northern Arizona (Adams 2003). Between 2005 and 2012 we installed artificial bat roosts at Camp Navajo near Flagstaff, Arizona. We captured bats at these roosting structures and marked them using modified bird bands. We established baseline population characteristics on Camp Navajo by utilizing a 7-year mark-and-recapture data set. We also provide a measure of population status that may be compared across temporal scales within the study area. In essence, this study provides the basis for an early warning system for WNS in Arizona.