The flat-headed cat Prionailurus planiceps is the smallest wild felid in Southeast Asia. Currently it is thought to be patchily distributed throughout Sumatra, Borneo, Peninsular Malaysia, and Thailand. Conclusive information on the species distribution, populations, and ecology is largely missing due to the lack of species detection. Here we report the first photographic evidence of flat-headed cats in Pasoh Forest Reserve, and second ever in Peninsular Malaysia. Two individuals moving together during daytime in lowland dipterocarp forest far from water bodies and near an oil palm plantation were photographed. The capture took place in June 2013 with a camera trap located at a height of 10 cm above the ground. Besides adding important information on the species' potential distribution and ecological ranges, we speculate that flat-headed cat ecology and the height of camera traps could be important factors why the species escapes detection.

Carbon-centric conservation strategies such as the United Nation's program to Reduce CO₂ Emissions from Deforestation and Degradation (REDD+), are expected to simultaneously reduce net global CO₂ emissions and mitigate species extinctions in regions with high endemism and diversity, such as the Tropical Andes Biodiversity Hotspot. Using data from the northern Andes, we show, however, that carbon-focused conservation strategies may potentially lead to increased risks of species extinctions if there is displacement (i.e., “leakage”) of land-use changes from forests with large aboveground biomass stocks but relatively poor species richness and low levels of endemism, to forests with lower biomass stocks but higher species richness and endemism, as are found in the Andean highlands (especially low-biomass non-tree growth forms such as herbs and epiphytes that are often overlooked in biological inventories). We conclude that despite the considerable potential benefits of REDD+ and other carbon-centric conservation strategies, there is still a need to develop mechanisms to safeguard against possible negative effects on biodiversity in situations where carbon stocks do not covary positively with species diversity and endemism.

Species Distribution Models (SDMs) have become increasingly useful for conservation issues. Initially designed to predict distributions of species from incomplete datasets, SDMs may also identify environmental conditions associated with higher occurrences and abundances of widely distributed taxa. Using sighting records of 15 widely distributed mammals from French Guiana, including primates, carnivores, rodents and ungulates, we used three SDMs –based on (i) entropy, (ii) genetic algorithm, (iii) Mahalanobis distance – to investigate relationships between species occurrence and predictive variables such as vegetation, biogeographic units, climate, and disturbance index. Maximal entropy procedures resulted in more accurate projected conditions: the accuracy of the predicted distributions was higher than 90% in nine species among the 15 tested, and predicted occurrences were correlated to field-measured abundances for nine species. The Genetic algorithm implemented with GARP had lower accuracy, with predicted occurrences correlated to abundances for three species only. Finally, Mahalanobis distance had a much lower performance and failed to find any correlation between occurrences and abundances. In the case of MaxEnt modelling, since map projection summarized more appropriate environmental conditions and identified areas likely to act as sources and/or corridors, we propose to use those appropriate environmental conditions as a proxy of conductance for landscape connectivity planning. We provide evidence here that SDMs can identify not only more suitable environmental conditions, but also areas hosting higher abundances for a large set of species with key ecological roles. Further management applications of this environmental suitability index could help in designing corridors between protected areas.

Understanding a species' occurrence requirements is essential for its conservation, and species distribution models (SDMs) are a powerful tool for this purpose. Here we estimated a SDM based on actual distribution information, in relation to climatic, hydrological, human population, and vegetation data sets, to understand the ecological requirements and geographic distribution of the Neotropical otter Lontra longicaudis, a species whose habitat requirements and conservation needs are mostly unknown. Using MaxEnt, we defined its potential distribution and most suitable areas to indicate priority areas for research and to analyze the efficiency of Protected Areas (PAs). Our findings suggest that the range of Neotropical otters could extend beyond their present estimated distribution, adding new areas in northeastern Brazil, Andean region, west Ecuador, Venezuela, Peru, Mexico, and Argentina, with higher suitability in rain forests (especially Atlantic and Amazon Forests). We also found that PAs are the most suitable areas for otter distribution. Although better than non-protected areas, PAs are close to the median of the suitability values, indicating that they still can be improved to conserve otters. Annual temperature and human population density explained most data variance in our model. We suggest the change of the actual status of Neotropical otter to Least Concern or Near Threatened categories. We recommend verifying the possible sympatry with other otters, and demonstrate that rudimentary and/or occasional recent data of occurrence can also be used in SDMs and contribute to species conservation.

Tropical Montane Cloud Forests (TMCF) support exceptional concentrations of biodiversity but are severely threatened by deforestation. In Mexico, 60% of TMCF tree species has been reported as threatened, and the epiphytic plants characteristic of these forests are particularly vulnerable to disturbance and climate change. We evaluated the role of remnant TMCF fragments as reservoirs of tree and epiphytic bromeliad biodiversity in southeastern Mexico. In four cloud forest fragments of varying size (1.2, 4.1, 6.6 and 9.8 ha), we recorded all trees ≥ 10 cm dbh in six 20 × 10 m plots and sampled eight trees at each site to measure bromeliad diversity. The assessment revealed that even very small forest fragments can host significant tree and epiphytic bromeliad diversity. In total, 45 tree and 18 bromeliad species were recorded among all the sites. These forest fragments are an important reservoir of both endemic tree species (seven species) and those with conservation status (nine tree species and one bromeliad species). Important variation in tree and bromeliad composition was found among fragments. This high heterogeneity among forest sites means that maintenance of even small fragments can play a strategic role in the conservation of biodiversity in the severely transformed landscape of the region. Such maintenance merits full consideration in the design of forest management policies and TMCF restoration initiatives.

The study determined the impacts of different forest management regimes on liana community assemblages and carbon stocks in the Bukit Panchor Forest Reserve, Malaysia. Based on time span, two forests treated by the Malayan Uniform System (MUS), but with different time of recovery (19 years old: MUS-19 and 42 years old: MUS-42) were selected for this study. The MUS is a silvicultural treatment involving a single harvest of trees of stipulated diameter (≥ 45 cm), followed by other silvicultural operations such as climber cutting. An untreated forest was added as a control. Lianas with diameter ≥ 2 cm were enumerated in ten 40 × 40 m² plots within each regime. Liana above-ground carbon stocks were determined using an allometric equation. Observed species richness and Shannon diversity of lianas were significantly lower in the MUS-19 treated forest than in the untreated forest (p<0.05), but the values of these attributes were similar in the MUS-42 treated and untreated forests. Rarefied liana species richness was significantly lower in the two treated forests than in the untreated forest (p<0.05). Liana stem basal area and carbon stock decreased significantly in the MUS-19 treated forest (p<0.05) relative to the untreated forest, whereas the values in the MUS-42 treated forest were similar to those in the untreated forest. In view of the adverse impacts of complete liana cutting on liana diversity, structure and carbon stocks in the treated forests, it is recommended that selective liana cutting be used in controlling lianas.

Conservation expedition groups that use volunteer researchers are widespread in the United Kingdom and are growing in popularity around the world. These expeditions operate in regions of high biodiversity to study and protect the endemic species of these areas. New products have now made it possible to conduct molecular analyses in the field. We tested this in a volunteer-based conservation expedition to an area of tropical montane rainforest and cloud forest in Cusuco National Park, Honduras. Specifically, we (1) tested and modified recommended protocols for use of the new molecular techniques on a wide range of plant and animal species in the field, (2) tested the ability of novice volunteers to successfully use these techniques after minimal introductory training, and (3) used the novel techniques to conduct a small-scale population genetic study of Liquidambar styraciflua L. while on expedition. We found the techniques to be effective on all plant and animal species tested, with some modification of manufacturers' protocols. We also found that novice student volunteers were able to learn the required theory and protocols for the new technology, collect reliable data, and perform basic genetic analyses in a week-long DNA field sampling course. Finally, the Liquidambar case study demonstrated that genetic analyses can be successfully completed in primitive field conditions. These findings have exciting implications for work that can be done in remote locations, often areas of the greatest conservation significance.

Bushmeat hunting is an important driver of wildlife depletion in Tanzania, but national-wide estimates of its consumption are lacking. We compare bushmeat consumption frequencies and determinants in ten tribes in different ecoregions in Tanzania, four of these within biodiversity hotspots of global conservation importance. Bushmeat consumption is examined in terms of ethnicity, selected indicators of wealth, and distance to and protection level of nearest protected area. Forty six percent of the respondents (n=300) belonging to nine of the ten tribes reported consuming bushmeat during the past 12 months, and 14% admitted that at least one household member hunted illegally. Significant differences in bushmeat consumption frequencies and species consumed were observed among ethnic groups. Regression revealed that the presence of a hunter in the household increased significantly the prevalence of bushmeat consumption, while distance to and protection level of nearest protected area had the most significant negative effect. Anti-poaching patrols are an effective deterrent to illegal bushmeat consumption, whilst access to domestic animal protein and other selected indicators of wealth do not reduce bushmeat consumption. The results emphasise the importance of strengthening anti-poaching services and the integration of cultural differences in preference for bushmeat into policies aimed at reducing bushmeat consumption and conserving wildlife.

In recently fragmented landscapes, hunting pressure increases because hunters can access previously remote habitats. Yet fewer than 0.5% of fragmentation studies with mammals have also assessed the impacts of hunting. Herein, by means of camera-traps and track-plots, we analyzed the impact of hunting and forest fragmentation on species richness and relative abundances of twelve species of large and medium-sized mammals. With both methods we found fewer species in hunted sites than in control sites, but the effect was inconsistent in fragmented habitats with hunting. Hunting negatively affected the indices of abundance for five of the 12 species and never had a positive effect. Contrary to the hypothesis that the combination of fragmentation and hunting would lead to the largest decrease in abundance, we found that the addition of fragmentation in hunted landscapes negatively affected only two species (red brocket deer [Mazama americana] and margay cat [Leopardus wiedii]) and positively affected three smaller species (crab-eating foxes [Cerdocyon thous], coatis [Nasua nasua], and agoutis [Dasyprocta spp.]). We also found a significant relationship between body mass and the effects of fragmentation (smaller species positively affected), but no relationship between body mass and the effect of hunting. Had we only compared results from the control with fragmented sites, we would have found a negative effect of fragmentation on five species abundance indices, a negative effect on species richness, and a positive effect on three species abundance indices. These results indicate that a failure to explicitly incorporate the effects of hunting into the design of fragmentation experiments can lead to widely different conclusions.

Pellet-group counting (PGC) is a commonly used method for estimating the population density of various ungulate species. The method assumes a positive linear relationship between the number of animals and the number of pellet-groups. To estimate population density from PGC, three parameters must be determined: defecation rate, persistence time, and spatial pattern of pellet-groups. This article introduces PELLET, a semi-automatic procedure in Microsoft Excel® for estimating population density in deer. The purpose of PELLET is to support deer managers and studies that determine and compare densities in different types of habitats. The density calculation includes a range of variation in the defecation rate that eliminates the subjective practice of selecting one single defined value for this rate. The calculation also incorporates spatial variation and deposition time. PELLET comprises four Excel® worksheets, the choice of which depends on type of plot and number of field samples. As an example, I describe the application of this procedure in a case study. Spanish and English versions of PELLET are freely available online.

Rare tropical tree species are endangered due to the disappearance of old-growth forests. Although some undisturbed old-growth and formerly logged forests are protected today, the extent to which rare tree species persist and regenerate in such logged forests is often unclear. In a forested area over limestone in northern Vietnam, we studied the fate of five rare tree species after decades of logging and subsequent nine years of full protection, in comparison with an un-logged forest. Three of the studied species are largely restricted to limestone hills (Excentrodendron tonkinense, Chukrasia tabularis and Garcinia fagraeoides), while two of the species have a wider distribution (Parashorea chinensis and Melientha suavis). The bigger trees of the study species had lower densities and/or differences in the diameter distributions between the two forest types, indicating that these species had formerly been cut. The regeneration stem density of the study species was much lower (46% in M. suavis to 80% in P. chinensis) in the logged than un-logged forest. In the un-logged forest, we found clear relationships between ecological factors and regeneration density in four of the five study species; e.g., the regeneration of E. tonkinense increased with increasing rock-outcrop cover (r = 0.6, p < 0.01). Such relationships were almost absent in the logged forest. The widely distributed generalist species Cleidion javanicum dominated in the tree regeneration of the logged forest. Our results suggest that the studied rare tree species still existed as adults after logging and there was regeneration but at low densities. We assume that the potential for recovery remains, which further justifies the full protection of this and other restoration areas.