Giant ground pangolins (Smutsia gigantea) are poorly known and difficult to study due to their nocturnal and burrowing habits. Here, we test the efficacy of using camera traps on potentially active burrows identified by local Ba'Aka guides to rapidly locate giant ground pangolins in the wild for subsequent observation and tagging for telemetry studies. We deployed nine cameras on potential giant ground pangolin burrows in the Dja Biosphere Reserve, Cameroon. One camera photographed an adult male giant ground pangolin using a burrow within 2 days of camera deployment. The pangolin used the same burrow several times over a 25-day period and possible scent-marking behavior was recorded.

With the aim of providing information for ecological restoration programs, we studied reproductive phenology and seed germination of eight species from the tropical dry forest of Morelos, Mexico. With the participation of students from the local junior high school, we monitored monthly, over one year, the production of flowers and immature and mature fruits for each species. We estimated intensity, duration, seasonality, and synchrony for each fruiting phenophase and flowering duration. Germination tests were undertaken in a germination chamber (18℃–32℃) and under the environmental conditions at the local school. We applied specific pregermination treatments for each species. Two distinct peaks of mature fruit production were identified: one at the beginning and the other in the middle of the dry season. Fructification seasonality was significant in most cases. Germination was relatively high in three legumes and particularly low in two Bursera species. Four species responded to the germination environments, and differences among pregermination treatments were significant in most cases. Knowledge on fruiting patterns and seed viability and germination will allow adequate decision-making for seed collection and plant propagation of the study species. Student participation increased their interest and knowledge on local environmental problems and solutions.

Changes in wetland environments can alter the dynamics of waterbird populations. We investigated the effects of hydrological and landscape variables on the abundance of resident waterbirds (ducks, fish-eaters, large waders, small waders, and vegetation gleaners) from 2003 to 2014 in Bung Boraphet, Thailand's largest freshwater wetland. Generalized linear mixed models were used to determine the effects of environmental variables on waterbird numbers, and generalized additive mixed models were used to identify the threshold for each effect. The results revealed that the population of all waterbirds declined by 27% from 2003 to 2014 with highest decline of 56% in ducks. Increasing water depth was negatively correlated with the abundance of small waders and vegetation gleaners. Higher concentrations of dissolved oxygen in the water increased the abundance of fish-eaters, while marshy areas were positively associated with the abundance of ducks, large waders, and vegetation gleaners. The abundance of fish-eaters, large waders, and small waders were negatively associated with the spatial area of waterbodies. Expanding human settlements decreased the abundance of vegetation gleaners, while vegetation infested by Mimosa pigra decreased the abundance of large waders. The study concludes that the maintenance of an optimal water depth and quality, preservation of critical marsh habitats, eradication of invasive species, and restrictions on new human settlements adjacent to wetlands are all necessary to conserve resident waterbird populations. Validating these findings in additional research sites is recommended before applying it to a broader landscape level.

Species that are functionally equivalent but with little taxonomical relationship may display similar genetic patterns if the ecological function evolves genetically in the same way. This study investigated the levels of genetic diversity in the D-Loop gene of random samples collected from 21 bat species inhabiting El Ocote Biosphere Reserve (REBISO, for its acronym in Spanish), and whether the genetic diversity pattern could be associated with the ecological role. Genetic differences between functional groups, localities, and species were evaluated through generalized linear models using the Gaussian distribution error family for nucleotide diversity (π) and the Poisson family for haplotype diversity (h) and segregating sites (s). To study the clustering pattern of species based on nucleotide variation, genetic distances (Kimura’s two-parameter model) between functional groups were calculated, and a Principal Components Analysis on genetic diversity parameters was run. Most of the species analyzed (20) maintained genetic diversity levels ranging from medium to high in all genetic diversity estimators. According to genetic distances, the species with the same ecological function shared a greater number of nucleotide substitutions, with some exceptions. The Principal Components Analysis did not detect any genetic structure in relation to the ecological function. Our study found no association between the diversity of the D-Loop gene and ecological function; nonetheless, it confirms the importance of REBISO as a reservoir of bat species richness and genetic diversity in Mexico.

Invasive species pose a grave threat to many national parks. Construction of roads and trails for tourism may facilitate invasion of alien species. To understand the effect of road and trail construction on invasive species, we established six transects in three land-use types (forest interior and road or trail edges) in Endau Rompin National Park, Johor, Malaysia, where we measured the number of an invasive shrub, Clidemia hirta (Melastomataceae), canopy openness, and soil properties; compared the density of C. hirta between the three land-use types; and finally, identified soil and canopy variables affecting its abundance using generalized linear mixed models. C. hirta was found along the road and trail with density ranging from 0.0 m⁻² to 33 m⁻² (average: 3.8 m⁻²), but was not found in the forest interior. Generalized linear mixed models suggested that canopy openness and soil pH negatively affected the density of C. hirta along the road, as did total soil nitrogen along the trail. This suggests that C. hirta was more abundant along dark and nutrient-poor road and trail edges. The construction of narrow roads (2.0–3.8 m) and trails (0.5–2.0 m wide) at our site would be considered a relatively minor disturbance without intensive clear cuts, and C. hirta seemed to prefer habitats with such minor disturbances. In the tropical rainforests, the managers or conservationists of the national park should include consideration of the effects such as minor disturbances have on invasive species.

Protected areas have become a vital conservation strategy to protect wildlife; however, illegal activities performed by local people within and around protected areas may undermine their conservation goals. We used information from 169 direct interviews with rural residents in order to understand the factors affecting illegal behaviors related to hunting and deforestation in three protected areas and a buffer zone of the Southern Bahian Atlantic Forest. We explored correlations between background factors, attitudes, norms, perceived behavioral control and behaviors toward different motivations for hunting (hunting for consumption, killing animals in retaliation for damage to crops or livestock, and keeping wildlife in captivity as pets), and deforestation based on insights from the Theory of Planned Behavior. Our results suggest that a combination of demographic factors, values held for protected areas and location influenced respondents’ attitudes, descriptive norms, and perceived behavioral control in the study region. We also found that components of the Theory of Planned Behavior such as attitudes and descriptive norms may be good predictors of the studied behaviors. Increasing local support for and compliance with policies of the protected areas is necessary for the long-term efficacy of these areas and for protection of species. Our findings suggest that to change behaviors of residents toward conservation in the study area, management actions should consider people’s attitudes and norms and the combination of background factors that influence these variables.

The wild bird trade is a major driver of species loss in Indonesia. However, studies of the Indonesian bird trade have focused on the island of Java, providing little information on the bird trade in other regions, such as Kalimantan. We conducted the first-ever market surveys in rural West Kalimantan from July 2015 to August 2016 and in the capital city of each of the five provinces of Kalimantan from August 2016 to February 2017. At each market, we recorded the number of individuals of each species, the price per individual for each species, and the source of each individual. In addition, we asked 32 bird traders and owners from Kalimantan to fill out a questionnaire addressing their perceptions of changes in price and availability of commercial species over time. Across our survey, we located 201 shops and 25,298 individuals for sale from 153 identified species. We conclude that our market surveys document only part of the trade and affirm that the bird trade is of considerable size in Kalimantan. We recommend that conservationists focus on conserving Kalimantan’s remaining forest and reducing demand through education and behavior change programs. We echo the calls of other conservationists for Indonesia to update the Conservation Act (No. 5) of 1990 to include current species of concern and for law enforcement efforts to stop both local trade and cross-island trade between Kalimantan and Java. Our study underlines the threat to the persistence of many Indonesian avian species.

Urbanization has profound effects on the presence and distribution of wildlife species. Although numerous studies have been conducted to inform our understanding of the effects of urbanization on wildlife, studies of urban wildlife communities in the tropics are especially rare. Here, we investigated the bird community assemblage and distribution at an urban military installation, Fort Buchanan, located within the San Juan Metropolitan Area on the Caribbean island of Puerto Rico. Using fixed-radius point count surveys and opportunistic encounters, we documented over 1,700 individual birds of 60 avian species across three sampling periods in March, April, and October 2016 (84 surveys over 12 total sampling days). The species occurring at the highest densities in this urban environment were Bananaquit (Coereba flaveola: 4.58 birds/ha), Antillean Grackle (Quiscalus niger: 3.64 birds/ha), Zenaida Dove (Zenaida aurita: 2.25 birds/ha), and White-winged Dove (Zenaida asiatica: 2.12 birds/ha). The birds occurring in the lowest densities were one native, imperiled duck species (Dendrocygna arborea), and several neotropical migrants. Most species were not randomly distributed throughout the site but were instead correlated with particular landscape features or habitat types. For instance, migratory warblers were mostly found in remnant forest patches, while Zenaida Doves were associated with open, grassy areas. As human populations continue to expand and urbanization spreads, it will become increasingly important to conserve critical, but often overlooked wildlife habitat—especially forest patches for migratory birds—within urban ecosystems.

The state of Oaxaca is positioned in a rather unique biogeographical position with the highest diversity of vascular plants in Mexico. The isolation of xeric valleys surrounded by complex mountain ranges in Oaxaca supplies an excellent opportunity to investigate the influence of the Pleistocene events on xeric species. To test for the alternative hypotheses of Pleistocene glacial refugia, we used sequences of two chloroplast markers to examine the phylogeographic patterns of the endemic mistletoe species Psittacanthus auriculatus (Loranthaceae) across its known range in Oaxaca and conducted ecological niche modeling (ENM) to explore changes of its distribution range through present, future, and palaeo periods. Our results revealed two groups corresponding to the distribution of individuals/populations from the northern locations (western valleys), and those from southern localities at central valleys of Oaxaca. A significant genetic signal of differentiation, demographic stability, and contraction of suitable habitat during the Last Glacial Maximum predicted by ENMs strongly supported a scenario of habitat fragmentation during the Late Pleistocene. We conclude that the genetic differentiation of P. auriculatus is consistent with a model of range contraction during glacial cycles and expansion during interglacials with no major range changes under future scenarios of climate change. The findings verified the profound effects of Pleistocene climatic fluctuations on this endemic mistletoe species, and the low genetic diversity within populations highlights, paradoxically, the urgency of preserving vulnerable populations of endemic yet parasitic mistletoes.

We studied the rheophytic vascular flora of the Samaná Norte River basin in Antioquia, Colombia, by rafting along a 61.4-km stretch of the river and establishing 10 plots on its banks. We found 58 species of rheophytes, including morphospecies, belonging to 29 families, mostly herbs and subshrubs. At least nine of the species are known only from this river basin and seven of them were discovered as new to science during this study. The nine species endemic to this river basin have estimated area of occupancy smaller than 10 km² and are here categorized as critically endangered. We recommend reconsidering plans to dam the river for a hydroelectric plant, as it might reduce populations of the nine critically endangered species and might drive at least two of them to extinction.

Despite Togo's naturally low forest cover and high rates of deforestation, remnant forest patches play an important role in conserving biodiversity and ensuring the well-being of the country's human population. Many of these remnant forest patches are sacred forests, ecosystems that are increasingly threatened because of changes in belief systems which have accompanied westernization. This study compares the ecological value and level of degradation of two sacred forests with an otherwise similar control forest that does not contain a sacred site based on characteristics including tree cover, vegetation composition, biodiversity, and biomass. The sacred forests had a significantly higher percentage of tree cover, higher biodiversity, and a greater biomass than the forest that did not contain a sacred site. In addition, dominant species within the sacred forests were associated with deciduous dry forest ecosystems while dominant species within the forest not containing a sacred site were introduced plantation species and species associated with savanna ecosystems. These results indicate that sacred forests in Kaboli, Togo, have a higher ecological value and are less degraded than similar community forests that do not contain a sacred site. This important role of sacred sites in forest conservation suggests that feedback loops exist between social and ecological systems, and that both need to be considered together to achieve effective development of forest conservation strategies.

Wild edible fruits are a complement to the diet, generate income, and contain cultural values for local populations. In Mexico, their presence is threatened mainly by deforestation. The purpose of this work was to evaluate the distribution of 106 wild edible fruits from Veracruz state in several vegetation types and consider the effect of land-use changes on species distribution between 1993 and 2013. Seven species with the least number of herbarium specimens were chosen in order to estimate the current and potential distribution using Maxent models. The types of vegetation with the largest number of wild edible fruit species were the evergreen tropical rainforest with 64, deciduous tropical forest with 51, and the mountain cloud forest with 33. The largest loss between 1993 and 2013 was in secondary vegetation (0.19%) and evergreen tropical rainforest (0.11%). The main causes are the increment in human settlements and pasture, and grazing land (originally populated by tropical forests)—both factors that could put at risk, in the near future, most of the species studied. All of the species with restricted distribution in Veracruz showed a tendency to shrink in area, particularly the piñón (Pinus cembroides) and nuez de castilla (Juglans pyriformis), both of economic importance. In the face of land-use changes, conservation strategies must be designed in accordance with rational use and public policies that promote a sustainable management of wild edible fruits and the forests in which they grow.

Madagascar is a key priority for global conservation efforts, as much of its diverse and highly endemic biota is threatened by deforestation. Despite this threat, there are limited data on the responses and tolerances of herpetofaunal species to landscape change. This study investigated the response of Madagascan day geckos (Phelsuma spp.) to deforestation in Nosy Be, Madagascar. We selected six sites along a gradient of land-use change: two in Sambirano rainforest (“Forest”), two in secondary, fragmented forest (“Fragment”), and two in agricultural plantations (“Orchard” and “Cropland”). We conducted a series of time-constrained searches at each site. The mean encounter rate of Phelsuma geckos (geckos detected per person/hour) was greater in agricultural sites than Forest sites, but no difference was detected between Forest and Fragment or Fragment and agricultural areas. Three species were encountered more frequently in agricultural land than forested sites, but this was not true for Phelsuma seippi, an endangered species on the IUCN Red List. These results suggest that adaptive, generalist species may benefit from anthropogenic land-use change, whereas specialist species will suffer. Our study emphasizes the importance of extending research beyond the borders of protected forests to include anthropogenically disturbed areas.

Alien invasive species pose a major threat to socioecological systems worldwide. Native avian frugivores may enhance the dispersal and germination success of exotic plants introduced for ornamental motives. In this study, we investigated the role of the native Rufous-backed Robin (Turdus rufopalliatus) as a potential dispersal agent of the worldwide invasive Brazilian pepper-tree (Schinus terebinthifolius). We evaluated gut transit time and mean retention time for birds feeding on this plant fruits and compared the germination rate and germination probability of intact fruits, peeled seeds, scarified seeds, and seeds from bird fecal samples. Gut transit time varied from 1.26 to 13.65 min, while mean retention time varied from 3.4 to 11.3 min. Germination rates differed between the intact seeds and the other three treatments; however, we found no differences among the germination rates of peeled, scarified, and defecated seeds. We found no differences among the seed germination probabilities of all treatments using the survival analysis; however, intact seeds presented a lower germination probability. Few studies have evaluated the role of avian frugivore’s gut transit time, mean retention time, germination rate, and germination probability on the seed germination of invasive plants. This study indicates that a native fruit-eating bird can play an important role dispersing the seeds of the Brazilian pepper-tree in an invasive range.

Exploring taxonomic, functional, and structural diversity can provide additional insights into our understanding of diversity responses to environment. Using altitude, slope, and relative radiation index as well as floristic and functional data from a South Africa Afromontane forest, we examined how taxonomic, structural, and functional diversity varied with local environmental variation. Taxonomic and structural diversity were quantified through species richness- and diameter class-based Shannon index and evenness, respectively. Skewness and coefficient of variation of diameter distribution were additionally computed for structural diversity. As for functional diversity, we used functional richness, evenness, divergence, and dispersion based on functional traits. Data were analyzed using multimodel inference and subset regression. We found little evidence of environmental effects on local-scale taxonomic diversity patterns. In contrast, structural and functional diversity metrics varied significantly along environmental gradients. Accordingly, diameter class-based Shannon evenness declined with increasing slope while skewness and coefficient of variation of diameter distribution increased with increasing slope. Functional evenness and divergence decreased with increasing altitude and radiation, respectively, while functional richness and dispersion increased with increasing slope. The results showed that taxonomic diversity patterns were less responsive to local-scale topographical variation than structural and functional diversity. Lower functional diversity on lower slope sites suggests weak environmental filtering effect promoting competitive exclusion and dominance of species with acquisitive traits. On higher slope sites, environmental filtering associated with slope gradient seems to favor coexistence of species with conservative traits and adapted to harsh conditions.

We present an assessment of the recorded vascular plants in the Los Tuxtlas region, in the state of Veracruz, Mexico, an important portion of the humid tropical forest at the northern edge of its distribution. A literature review and the information contained in the two most important databases in Mexico with digitized information for the region report 2,548 species, of which 2,391 are native and 157 naturalized (exotic). The families with the highest number of species are Fabaceae, Orchidaceae, Asteraeae, and Rubiaceae. The composition of the flora is analyzed, and its similarity is compared with other tropical regions of Mexico. The humid tropical forest in Los Tuxtlas stands out as the site with the third highest number of tropical species in Mexico, and in particular for its high number of endemisms. A quarter of the species occurring in the region are threatened; despite this, the biosphere reserve within its limits plays an important role in the conservation of this type of vegetation.

There is increasing evidence of large carnivores using human-use areas, but our understanding of their ecology in such landscapes is limited. The role of wild and domestic prey in sustaining populations of carnivores in human-use landscapes could be significant but is currently poorly documented. We studied the prey composition and diet selection of leopards (Panthera pardus) in a forest and tea-garden landscape in north-eastern India where the population density is greater than 700 people per km² and average domestic animal density is 340 animals per km². Wild prey density in the landscape was 56 animals per km². Both wild and domestic prey were used by leopards in proportion to their availability with no selectivity toward either (χ² = 87.17, p = .99, SE = 0.001). Among wild prey, Rhesus macaque (Macaca mulatta) was found in high densities (24 animals per km²) and was preyed by leopards more frequently that the proportional availability. High use of domestic prey by leopard, with 60% of the prey biomass comprising cattle and goats has the potential for negative impact on conservation support for the species. While on one hand, there is great scope for the persistence of large cats in dense human-use landscapes due to the availability of domestic prey, on the other hand, the study highlights the problems of livestock loss especially to poorer sections of the society which need to be reconciled for achieving long-term and sustainable conservation goals.

Oaxaca state is one of the main hotspots of biodiversity in Mexico, containing almost 40% of the Mexican vascular flora, due to its high variability in habitat and climatic conditions coupled with high elevations in mountains and low elevations in valleys. We studied the genetic diversity and population structure of Quercus candicans, Quercus crassifolia, and Quercus castanea across their geographical distribution in Oaxaca state to understand how the heterogeneous physiography had driven the genetic diversity and population differentiation in these three oak species. We found high levels of genetic diversity but ca. 40% of the populations had significant values of Wright’s inbreeding coefficient. The analysis of molecular variance indicated that most of the variation occurred within populations in the three oak species. Resistance analyses showed connectivity among almost all the populations but barrier analysis found genetic breaks that limited gene flow among some populations of the oak species. Even in a heterogeneous environment such as in Oaxaca state, the oak species still have high levels of genetic diversity and landscape connectivity. However, it is necessary to maintain the genetic connectivity through the preservation of natural corridors with forests in good condition, which is necessary to maintain the cohesiveness of the species in the long term. It is also important to protect the centers of species diversity in Oaxaca state located in the subprovinces of Western Oaxacan Mountains and Valleys, Sierra Madre de Oaxaca, and Sierra Madre del Sur because they harbor most of the population genetic diversity and oak species richness, as has been shown in previous studies.

Big-leaf mahogany (Swietenia macrophylla King) is an economically important timber species in the Neotropics. For over three centuries, it has been selectively extracted from tropical forests, threatening its populations. We investigate the actual and potential distribution of big-leaf mahogany and assess its abundance on the Yucatan Peninsula based on the National Forest and Soils Inventory database. Furthermore, we evaluate environmental factors associated with its distribution, abundance, and tree size. The actual and potential distribution models show the presence of mahogany in a wide geographic area covering the southern and eastern portions of the Yucatan Peninsula. Abundance of mahogany in the landscape varies and in general is low. The spatial potential distribution model was best explained by the environmental variables of vegetation cover (medium- and high-stature semievergreen tropical forest) and elevation (upland areas). Results also indicate that mahogany remains relatively abundant and contain larger size classes in localities where the species has been harvested and managed for decades under community forest management. Furthermore, statistical analyses show greater tree density of mahogany mostly associated with low-stature semievergreen tropical forest having deep soils (gleysols and vertisols), while larger tree size (diameter at breast height) was associated with medium-stature semievergreen tropical forests in upland areas with moderately deep or shallow soils (mostly rendzinas or leptosols). Despite deforestation, land-use change and forestry activities on the Yucatan Peninsula, particularly in the past 20 years, the distribution and abundance of mahogany do not appear to be as drastically reduced as described in other neotropical regions.

As a group adapted to invade disturbed sites, bamboos can dominate extensive areas and, thus, alter vegetation structure and dynamics. However, the effect of bamboo expansion associated to human activity on seedling communities in tropical forests remains poorly known. We investigated the correlation of the native bamboo Guadua tagoara presence for a year on the abundance, richness, diversity, dominance, evenness, emergence, mortality, and growth of the first months of the native seedlings establishment in an Atlantic forest area, São Paulo State, Brazil. Bamboo presence favored the initial establishment of the palm Euterpe edulis seedlings but altered seedling community structure as a whole. Species richness did not differ between bamboo and nonbamboo dominated habitats, but abundance, diversity, and evenness did. Bamboo habitats showed higher seedling abundance, emergence, and mortality than in habitats without bamboos. However, diversity was lower in these habitats. Our results shed light on the role of bamboo presence in limiting early establishment of native seedlings but favoring the first months of establishment of E. edulis, the dominant species in bamboo habitats (70%). Therefore, the monitoring of more specific variables could be included (i.e., bamboo culm density, soil type, decomposition of organic matter, fauna living, or foraging in bamboos) in future studies to better understand the consequences of bamboo dominance on the recruitment and dynamics of tropical forests biodiversity in the long term.

Close-to-nature (CTN) forestry integrates multiple forest functions and emphasizes forest ecosystem conservation. Within this framework, forests are typically maintained as uneven-aged mixed stands with multiple vertical layers and are managed following the defined stand developmental stages, that is, the various phases of forest succession. This study aimed to evaluate the long-term effects of CTN management on the stand structure and growth of Pinus massoniana using data from 28 plots managed with the CTN approach and 58 plots of traditional monocultures in southern China. A comparison was performed between three vertical layers across five developmental stages of the CTN stands and the monoculture stands. The results showed that the tree species diversity improved in the CTN stands, with a decrease in the importance value of P. massoniana. The conversion did not change the diameter growth averaged over all species, but it did promote the radial growth of P. massoniana in the canopy layer. The stand growth, in terms of the basal area and the volume of the canopy trees, declined in the CTN stands during the final two stages, as harvesting took place, and the volume growth of P. massoniana also decreased in the CTN stands. However, the conversion seemed to improve the stand productivity of the subcanopy and regeneration layers, where higher relative dominance values of all species were observed, especially during the later stages. Overall, the CTN conversion tended to benefit the stand structure and improve the single tree growth of P. massoniana rather than the total stand growth.

The island of Borneo suffers from one of the highest deforestation rates in the world, primarily due to agriculture, logging, and other human activities. This habitat loss may be partly mitigated by reforestation programs in degraded landscapes, especially anthropogenic grasslands that have little conservation or economic value. By monitoring native bird communities, we evaluated the success of two small (<20 ha) community reforestation projects in Gunung Palung National Park in Indonesian Borneo. Birds responded rapidly following reforestation, with species richness doubling over 7 years at one site, and increasing by 29% in just 3 years at the other. Final tallies (63–70 species per site) were comparable to those obtained in older secondary forests elsewhere in Borneo. Anthropogenic fire is the primary threat to reforestation success, but intensive fire prevention allows bird communities to recover from temporary setbacks. Absence of fire was thus the most important factor in recovery, and we detected no effect of replanted area on bird species richness. Our results suggest that by engaging local communities and ensuring long-term maintenance, even small reforestation sites in Borneo can provide immediate benefits for native biodiversity.

Official Development Assistance is a major funding source for biodiversity conservation in developing countries, and it is therefore important to understand the effectiveness of biodiversity aid. However, three challenges hamper the analysis of how effectively biodiversity-related development aid (biodiversity aid) contributes to the conservation of biodiversity and its sustainable use. First, few indicators measure biodiversity aspects at country level in a consistent and comparable way. Second, biodiversity aid reporting methods do not reveal the exact funding amount for projects’ biodiversity component. Third, changes in biodiversity status are empirically and conceptually difficult to attribute to aid activities. Based on a theoretical elaboration of these challenges, we argue that for a better assessment of how biodiversity aid contributes to conserving biodiversity and to reducing biodiversity loss, three improvements are required: a more frequent and more consistent assessment of the biodiversity status across countries, more exact quantification of biodiversity aid, and a more detailed understanding about biodiversity loss and the role biodiversity aid plays. These improvements will allow for more reliable aid-effectiveness analyses, which will, in turn, enable better informed aid-allocation decisions to be made.

Deforestation and fragmentation are threats to the conservation of species and have consequences for ecosystem functions. The focus of this study was to elucidate forest cover change in the period of 1993 to 2014. Our study area is in the central region of Veracruz, Mexico. Land cover and land use classes for the Years 1993, 2000, and 2014 were derived from Landsat images applying supervised classification. Then, we quantified the net change in forest area, the loss of original forest area, and evaluated forest fragmentation using landscape metrics. Our results showed that the area covered by remnant forests decreased 57%. The annual net forest cover change rate for 1993 to 2000 was −0.44%; since then forest cover increased at a rate of 0.11% from 2000 to 2014. The decreasing total edge density and the mean proximity index during the entire period of the study indicate decreasing irregularity in the shape of remnant forest patches and a slight decrease of vulnerability to edge effects. Forest patches augmented in 2000 and decreased in 2014 demonstrating an 18% decrease in relation to the number of fragments existing in 1993. According to our study, this area demands an urgent attention on preservation initiatives because only 2% of the surface extent is below federal protection and 0.8% is under State protection. It is important to protect the larger forest areas left in the pine-oak and humid montane forest belt because of their importance to plant diversity conservation and particularly, as these are threatened by urban and agricultural expansion.

An accurate description of spatial urban growth is a prerequisite step in order to implement appropriated policies to improve the ecosystem service performance of green spaces in a city. Such information is, however, absent in Lubumbashi, the second metropolis of the Democratic Republic of Congo, despite its high demographic growth rate and an unplanned spatial urban growth. This study was designed to characterize the spatial pattern of green spaces and the extent of changes driven by the urbanization along the urban–rural gradient using a combination of landscape metrics and floristic plots. Our results revealed that the number of patches was directly proportional to the degree of urbanization of the city, whereas the area of the green spaces and the index of the largest patch showed an inverse relationship with the urbanization degree. Urban green spaces were dominated by attached and roadside spaces that are more equipped and present a higher occurrence of cultivated plants. By contrast, peri-urban green spaces were characterized by buffer zones, fields, abandoned areas, and informal spaces, with an elevated proportion of invasive species and natural vegetation. Moreover, it was found that the number of exotic species increased with the degree of urbanization, reaching values considered a threat to the indigenous flora. The current results underline the need for urgent measures oriented both toward increasing the spatial connectivity between green spaces (e.g., by creating new green spaces planted with indigenous species) while reducing the spread of invasive species in the city.

Efforts to sequester carbon through tree plantations and natural regeneration in the tropics may also provide an opportunity to restore native forest ecosystems. However, the degree to which species composition of native species differs between tree plantations and secondary forests is unknown. In this study, we conducted surveys of woody plants (≥2 cm dbh) in 20 secondary forest and tree plantation plots (30 × 30 m) in a tropical lowland forest landscape. Sites were 8 to 21 years old and were either abandoned cattle pastures (secondary forests) or monoculture tree plantations (Hieronyma alchorneoides and Vochysia guatemalensis) planted for carbon sequestration. We compared species composition, ecological traits, and diversity of woody plants in secondary forests and tree plantations, while accounting for distance from primary forest. Species composition, but not species richness, of the natural regeneration was significantly different in tree plantations and secondary forests. The abundances of understory species, short-lived pioneers, and bat-dispersed species were all higher in secondary forests than in tree plantations. Abundances of canopy species, long-lived pioneers, shade-tolerant species, and dispersal categories besides bats were not associated with forest type. We conclude that tree plantations can alter species composition of regeneration compared with secondary forests perhaps by altering composition of seed disperser assemblages or inhibiting early successional species.

Forest degradation is a major driver of the global biodiversity declines. However, responses to forest degradation vary greatly between taxa and are predominantly understudied. This study investigates the effects of land-use change on the endemic amphibian fauna of São Tomé Island (Central Africa), where a fast-growing human population increases pressure on forest resources. We sampled acoustic data on reed frog (Hyperolius spp.) abundance at eight transects in each of four land-use categories, representing different levels of forest degradation: old-growth forest, secondary forest, agroforest, and horticulture. While Hyperolius molleri was most abundant in secondary forest and horticulture, Hyperolius thomensis was almost exclusively found in agroforest. We interpret these differences based on reproductive traits, since both species deposit terrestrial eggs and have aquatic larvae, but reproduce in different microhabitats. H. molleri utilizes open water bodies bordered by vegetation for calling and oviposition, which human disturbance has made available in secondary forest and horticulture. In contrast, H. thomensis breeds in water-filled tree holes (phytotelmata), which predominantly occurred in agroforest, often within coral trees (Erythrina spp.). This first study on Santomean amphibian abundances revealed that H. molleri and H. thomensis males exhibit distinct nonlinear responses to forest degradation and may reap some benefit from human habitat alteration. However, despite their apparent tolerance to some anthropogenic disturbance, further land-use intensification may reduce overall habitat suitability for these and other endemic species.

Successful biodiversity conservation is closely linked to the support received from society. Therefore, a better understanding of public preferences for conservation activities facilitates successful conservation efforts. The objective of the study is to determine the preferences of tourists and local residents regarding the proposed conservation program of the northern yellow-cheeked gibbon (Nomascus annamensis) and its economic value in the Bach Ma National Park, as well as to examine the factors that determine their willingness to pay (WTP) for the gibbon conservation. The WTP was estimated with the dichotomous choice contingent valuation method, and data were collected using face-to-face interviews with 710 participations, including 352 Vietnamese tourists and 358 local residents. The logistic regression model was applied to predict the probability of WTP for the program. A number of factors were found to be significant predictors of WTP that included bid level, visit, awareness, knowledge, distance, family size, and education. The mean WTP amount was estimated at about $US3.81/tourist and $US 2.93/household for one-time support of the gibbon conservation program. A significant difference was also found between the tourists and local residents in terms of the estimated WTP. Our findings suggest that there is a strong public support within Vietnamese society for the conservation of gibbons, which should be considered in the design of social policies for biodiversity conservation and natural resource management.

Anthropogenic environmental changes have resulted in biodiversity crisis. Although tropical rainforests are one of the global biodiversity hotspots, their biodiversity is still poorly known. Especially fungi are poorly represented in national Red Lists and conservation plans, despite their important role in ecosystem functioning. We studied wood-inhabiting fungi (polypores) in four areas within two Atlantic rainforest fragments in Southeast Brazil. Our aim was to investigate fungal substrate characteristics and community composition. Deadwood amount ranged from 27 to 82 m³/ha among the four study areas and altogether we recorded 53 polypore species. More species were observed in intermediate and late decay stages than in early decay stages, but other deadwood variables did not explain the occurrence of polypores. Similarity in polypore community composition within and among the areas was low. Dissimilarity originated mostly from species turnover from a transect and area to another, and no nestedness in species occurrence pattern was detected. Hence, the observed dissimilarity in community composition was probably a result of heterogeneity in forest composition and structure, instead of environmental gradients or substrate limitations. These results corroborate previous polypore studies from the Atlantic forest in that tropical polypores are specialists toward particular decay stages. To develop ecologically effective conservation program for tropical polypores, more studies are needed on their distribution and abundance globally.

Across the tropics, vast deforested areas are undergoing forest regeneration due to land abandonment. Although secondary forest is an expanding type of landscape matrix that has been shown to buffer some of the negative consequences of forest loss and fragmentation on taxonomic diversity, little is known in this regard about the functional dimension of biodiversity. We took advantage of an ecosystem-wide fragmentation experiment to investigate longer term changes in functional diversity of a mega-diverse Amazonian bat assemblage associated with regrowth development in the matrix. We found that matrix regeneration affected several facets of bat functional diversity in secondary forest over time, increasing functional α diversity, species- and community-level functional uniqueness, altering functional trait composition, and resulting in functional β-diversity changes via trait gains. However, approximately 30 years of matrix regeneration were insufficient for functional diversity to recover to the same levels as in continuous forest. Our results suggest that a combination of natural, human-assisted, and active restoration is likely to be the most successful strategy for restoring functional biodiversity of bats in human-modified tropical landscapes, a finding that most likely also applies to many other taxa.

The endemic species Podocnemis lewyana, the Magdalena River turtle, is listed worldwide as one of the turtle species at highest risk of extinction, and Trachemys callirostris, the Colombian slider, is the most trafficked turtle species in Colombia. An ethnozoological approach was used to analyze people's attitudes and perceptions on the effectiveness of conservation programs for these species and to identify conservation measures that would contribute to turtle population sustainability. Available statistics on turtle trade were also used as complementary information. We interviewed local residents who were exposed (n = 50) and not exposed (n = 50) to turtle conservation initiatives. When evaluating the two focal turtle species, we found differences in direct use between people exposed and not exposed to conservation programs, where people exposed to conservation initiatives made less direct use of these focal species. However, when other sympatric turtle species were considered, there were no significant differences in levels of turtle exploitation between people exposed and not exposed to conservation programs. Thus, successfully reducing the consumption of a focal turtle species might lead to an increased use of other local turtle species. Almost all interviewed locals were aware of turtle population declines, with the perceived most serious risk to turtle species reported being habitat loss and degradation followed by human consumption. Regarding turtle trade, we did not find significant differences between the two groups. Illegal trade levels in 2010 were 6.5 greater compared to 2016. We propose several new directions for turtle management and conservation of these species.

To design conservation strategies, the extent of plant richness of tropical forests needs to be characterized in terms of their seed longevity. In this study, we examined the potential seed longevity, that is, storage ex situ, of species from south-eastern Mexico: Chamaedorea glaucifolia, Cymbopetalum baillonii, Magnolia mexicana, Nectandra coriacea, and Ternstroemia tepezapote. Immediately after collection, seeds were stored at different temperatures (≤23℃). We evaluated seed germination after different storage durations. Seed water content (WC) was determined for each period. Seed desiccation sensitivity was determined as WC₅₀, which is the WC at which the initial seed viability decreases to 50%; further, the time required to reach WC₅₀ was also determined. Subsequently, we analyzed the relations between seed functional traits with other morphological and functional traits, along with the weather characteristics of their respective habitat. All of the studied species had short-lived seeds; they exhibited desiccation sensitivity after storage with differences across the species. Additionally, C. baillonii exhibited differences in seed desiccation sensitivity across 2 years of seed collection. Interaction was observed between storage time and storage temperature: Seeds exhibited less deterioration at 15℃ in C. glaucifolia and C. baillonii and at 5℃ in M. mexicana and N. coriacea. Seed storage behavior is discussed in this article. Finally, a relationship determined between germination traits, and seed WC, embryo size, endosperm amount, and rain and temperature patterns in the month of seed dispersal explained the limited longevity of the studied species.

There is a growing disconnect between the international conferences where grand solutions for tropical conservation are designed and the complex local realities in tropical landscapes where plans need to be implemented. Every tropical landscape is different and no “one size will fit all.” There is a tendency for global processes to prescribe simple generalized solutions that provide good sound bites that can be communicated with political actors and the media. Sustainable outcomes in tropical landscapes require locally adapted, unique approaches supported by long-term processes of learning and adaptation. Tropical biologists and conservationists can play a key role by establishing effective local–global links and by directly engaging in local policy discourses while remaining connected to evolving political imperatives.

Beaucarnea inermis is a threatened plant of the seasonally dry tropical forests of the northeastern Sierra Madre Oriental mountains. It has been affected by habitat loss and fragmentation, mainly from changes in land use and poaching. The number of B. inermis plants, sexual proportion, and structural parameters were recorded in natural populations inside the Sierra del Abra Tanchipa Biosphere Reserve and unprotected sites. Effects of chronic disturbance on demography parameters and asymmetry coefficient were estimated. Average population density is 280 ind*ha⁻¹ inside the protected area and 186 ind*ha⁻¹ in unprotected sites. Life tables indicate a high seedling to juvenile mortality rate, but life expectancy increases in juveniles, suggesting a survival type III curve. Population size distribution skewness indicates differences associated with disturbance. Sex ratio was 0.93:1 (m:f) inside the protected area and 0.76:1 (m:f) in unprotected sites. Anthropogenic disturbance affects life expectancy and the survival and mortality rates mainly in early life classes; however, once the adult stage is reached, mortality rate is reduced and survival rate increases. The natural protected area represents a refuge for the species from the effects of anthropogenic disturbance and illegal poaching. Additional studies are needed to evaluate the genetic diversity in B. inermis in protected and unprotected sites, and how it is affected by disturbance. Also, it is important to highlight other species inside the protected area such as Dioon edule, Zamia fischeri, and Stanhopea tigrina, which are considered as endangered or threatened.

We present a simple method to use birds to assess and track the restoration of Tropical Montane Cloud Forests using birds as indicator species. The method is composed of three pieces: a classification of disturbance phases, the collection of species- and assembly-level bird data, and the matching of these two data sets to understand its relationships. We were able to select three species of resident and three species of Neotropical migrants exclusively associated to each of the four habitat phases, as well as some characteristics at the assembly level that help understand the condition of habitats, prescribe restoration intervention plans, and to track its progress over time. The approach described here is intended to be of simple application, aimed for practitioners, and be easily replicated in other places.

Ecuador has among the world’s highest biodiversity, despite being a tiny fraction of the world’s land area. The threat of extinction for some of this biodiversity has dramatically increased since April 2016, during which time the Ecuadorian government has opened around 13% of the country to mining exploration, with many of the concessions in previously protected forests. Herein, we describe the system of protected lands in Ecuador, their mining laws, and outline the scale of threat by comparing the mammals, amphibians, reptiles, birds, and orchids from several now threatened protected areas, classed as “Bosques Protectores,” in the northwestern montane cloud forests. Together, these reserves form a buffer and a southern corridor for the still-protected Cotacachi-Cayapas Ecological Reserve, which is otherwise now surrounded by mining concessions. We gathered published literature, “gray literature,” information from reserve records and websites, and our previously unpublished observations to make comparative species tables for each reserve. Our results reveal the potential losses that mining could cause: eight critically endangered species, including two primates (brown-headed spider monkey and white-fronted capuchin), 37 endangered species, 153 vulnerable, 89 near threatened, and a large number of less threatened species. Our data show that each reserve protects a unique subset of taxa in this region of highly localized endemics and the reserves also generate sustainable income for local people. The short-term national profits from mining will not compensate for the permanent biodiversity losses, and the long-term ecosystem service and economic losses at the local and regional level.

Monitoring is a key step for achieving restoration success. Despite increasing advances for selecting ecological indicators, monitoring sampling designs are not always available. We investigated how tree richness and the most used forest structure indicators vary spatially in restoration sites, aiming to provide evidence-based guidance for future monitoring protocols. We collected data from eight forest restoration sites covering overall 1,000 ha in four Brazilian Atlantic Forest regions. Canopy cover, tree density, vegetation height, and species richness were assessed in 18.2 ha of plots ranging from 60 to 300 m² in size, in restoration sites aged 1 to 5 years old. Using resampling techniques, we calculated the sampling error for the indicators and compared them with original sampling results, and then estimated the number of plots needed to reach a 20% sampling error. The ecological indicators assessed showed high variability among restoration sites. Canopy cover and height required less plots to reach the targeted sampling error than density of trees. The number of species does not stabilize even when more than 90% of the total number of plots was resampled, indicating high spatial variation. The use of the sampling error approach for defining how much to monitor, associated to appropriate sampling methods, could increase the reliability of monitoring. In addition, they will reduce operational costs, thus providing a key contribution to the effectiveness of large-scale restoration programs expected to be implemented globally in the coming years. Thus, we recommend the incorporation of this in the forest restoration monitoring protocols being discussed worldwide.

Plasticity may be a key factor to determine plant survival under a changing environment as a result of climate change or land use modification. Plasticity in physiological and morphological traits was evaluated in seven epiphytic Tillandsia species (Bromeliaceae) from six vegetation communities along a precipitation gradient in the Yucatan Peninsula, Mexico. Microenvironmental conditions (air temperature and humidity, light, and vapor pressure deficit), as well as Δ titratable acidity, osmotic potential, relative water content, and succulence were characterized during wet, early dry, and dry seasons. We calculated the relative distances plasticity index using physiological data from the wet and dry seasons; morphological plasticity was also calculated for foliar trichome and stomatal traits from previously published data. We found high variation in microenvironmental conditions between seasons, particularly for the tropical dry deciduous forest. The dry season had a negative effect in all physiological variables (decrease from 40% to 59% for Δ titratable acidity and 10% to 38% for relative water content). The highest plasticity was registered for T. balbisiana (physiological: 0.29, anatomical: 0.18) and the lowest for T. fasciculata and T. yucatana. Nonmetric multidimensional scaling analysis separated individuals distributed in the wettest vegetation types from those distributed in the driest vegetation types, irrespective of the species, showing convergent physiological strategies to confront environmental variation. We found higher plasticity in water use traits in atmospheric species, compared to tanks and higher plasticity in general in species with wide distribution compared to those with small distribution ranges.

Coffee forests in southwestern Ethiopia host a diverse community of birds including some endemics. Different ecological bird groups respond differently to coffee management intensity, to amount of forest cover, and to distance to the forest edge. In this commentary, we highlight the implications of these differential responses for the resilience of the forest ecosystem and outline research priorities for future studies of bird diversity in the region.

In a recent publication, we documented the benefits of using agricultural waste (specifically, leftover orange peels from a commercial orange juice factory) to promote forest recovery at a site in Costa Rica. While we showed unambiguously positive impacts on soil conditions, forest biomass, and tree diversity, our ability to infer mechanisms behind this recovery was limited because the project was never replicated. It appears our work is one of only a handful of peer-reviewed studies testing the use of unprocessed agricultural waste as part of a tropical forest restoration initiative. We argue that regardless of the mechanism, there are first-principle reasons to expect that minimally processed (and thus low-cost) agricultural wastes could be utilized to accelerate tropical forest restoration in a variety of contexts, potentially creating a new class of biodiversity-friendly carbon offsets that may address previous concerns about linking tropical forestry to global carbon markets. We outline research initiatives that could lead to a richer understanding of when and where it is safe and effective to utilize agricultural and other wastes in tropical forest restoration endeavors.

Balancing meat production and biodiversity conservation is a major challenge. To address this challenge, we must understand the independent effects of land-use change and production practices on biodiversity across spatial scales. A key question is whether biodiversity will benefit more from habitats embedded in farmland (“land sharing”) or preserved elsewhere (“land sparing”). Our multiscale assessment of dung beetle communities in livestock-dominated landscapes from the Yucatan Peninsula, Mexico, supports the latter strategy. New results from phylogenetic analyses and unpublished results from dung removal experiments also highlight the importance of forest cover for preserving dung beetles and their key ecological roles. Both landscape-scale forest cover and macrocyclic lactones (commonly used veterinary drugs) shape dung beetle communities in the Yucatan Peninsula, thus suggesting that a land sparing approach, which maximizes forest protection, may minimize the damage of beef production to biodiversity. However, maximizing yields through macrocyclic lactone use will likely reduce on-farm ecosystem service provision. These surprising results have important implications for the conservation of biodiversity and ecological functions, as they suggest that the best strategies for conserving biodiversity may differ from those focused on delivering ecosystem services. We must therefore consider factors other than just food production and biodiversity conservation when designing land-use strategies.

Restoration practitioners are faced with many decisions when restoring tropical forests in abandoned pastures. One of the most important decisions is selecting combinations of species to plant that can mitigate the many barriers seedlings face to maximize seedling establishment and growth. To aid in species selection, there is an increasing shift in using plant functional traits, yet there is still progress to be made in understanding how traits respond to barriers present during the early stages of seedling establishment. Here, I present an example of a trait–barrier relationship from our recent publication in the Journal of Applied Ecology and discuss how using functional traits can help develop tailored combinations of species for specific site conditions.

Environmental legislation has fostered ecological restoration programs worldwide, but few studies have reported the outcomes for landscape connectivity. Here, we investigated the contribution of forest restoration programs planned to comply with the Brazilian Forest Code for increasing forest cover and landscape connectivity in agricultural landscapes of southeastern Brazil. We gathered data for 85 landscapes and 2,408 rural properties, totalizing 748,601 ha of farmlands within the Atlantic Forest biome and its ecotone with Cerrado, two global hotspots for biodiversity conservation. Together, rural properties account for 50,783 ha of native vegetation deficit found on Areas of Permanent Protection (APPs). On the basis of this, we performed a landscape connectivity analysis by simulating scenarios in accordance with the requirements of the legislation for two sugarcane mills that are already under ongoing restoration efforts. We evaluated the relative changes promoted by restoring all deforested riparian buffers within APPs, as determined by the Forest Code. The simulation of restoration at the property-level resulted in the reconnection of isolated forest patches, reducing their number in the landscape and increasing their overall and core size. At the sugarcane mill level, the restoration of riparian forests increased the index of connectivity. Despite these benefits, final forest cover (remnant plus restored forests) would still be reduced (<20%—the minimum forest cover on the private land to comply with the environmental law) in most landscapes and insufficient to conserve species sensitive to forest fragmentation. The mandatory restoration of riparian buffers plays a relevant role for improving landscape connectivity in human-modified tropical landscapes, but this strategy shall be complemented by other approaches to increase forest cover and landscape connectivity to mitigate the enormous species extinction debt accumulated for tropical forests.

Anthropogenic impact has been heavy in remote oceanic islands, including the introduction of alien species, having negative effects on native seabirds. The isolated and subtropical Rapa Nui (Easter Island) is one of the few known breeding sites of the red-tailed tropicbird, Phaethon rubricauda in Chile (southeastern Pacific Ocean) where is listed as vulnerable. A relatively new breeding colony is found in the Rano Raraku volcano, where human-introduced species are present. We used hen eggs as a proxy for red-tailed tropicbird eggs to assess potential predation risk on unattended eggs. Each experimental egg was monitored by camera traps during 6 days. Three predatory species were identified on the records: the Brown rat Rattus norvegicus, the Polynesian rat Rattus exulans, and the raptor Chimango Caracara Phalcoboenus chimango. The most frequent species were the Rattus spp. A total of 45 predatory visits were recorded with a total time of 1.7 h, accounting for the 0.3% of the experimental time. Within this time of visits, all the potential predators spent time in both interacting activities (trying to prey on) and no-interacting activities with the experimental eggs. Only a Brown rat was able to prey on one of the eggs. Our results suggest that these invasive species are a low threat for unattended red-tailed tropicbird eggs at Rano Raraku, Rapa Nui. However, future research is needed to determine the potential negative effects over unattended red-tailed tropicbird nestlings that are easier for these predators to handle compared with an egg.

The secondary succession of tropical rainforest in abandoned agricultural fields modifies components of species diversity and processes of species colonization and replacement. In general, knowledge on invertebrate reassembly is lacking, even though invertebrate assemblages directly influence the maturation of forests. Ants are especially useful for testing hypotheses about the effects of resource diversity and microhabitat conditions. We experimentally assessed the effects of different successional stages on nest colonization. Then, we assessed whether nesting resources and microhabitat conditions (i.e., abiotic conditions) are potential mechanisms that influence the colonization pattern of twig-dwelling ants along a natural chronosequence for 1 year in the Lacandon region, Mexico. We found that ant species richness in twigs is correlated with total species found in leaf litter. The nest occupancy increased as succession progressed, but species richness did not change. Nests occupation increased to greater artificial nesting resource decomposition rates and lower soil pH. Meanwhile, species richness was increased only with lower soil compaction. Species composition changes among successional categories; the changes were greater with greater soil compaction and soil pH. The diversity of nesting resources did not drive twig-dwelling ant assembly. We conclude that the natural maturation of tropical forest enables greater colonization of twig-dwelling ants, but recovery of the species composition of assemblages after 30 years is incomplete, although it shows a recovery trend.

In much of the tropics, the proportion of the land covered by regenerating forest surpasses than in primary forest, thus protecting regenerating forest could offer a valuable conservation opportunity, but only if those lands promote faunal recovery. Chapman et al. documented the recovery of populations of six primate species over up to 45 years in Kibale National Park, Uganda and discovered that in preexisting forest, populations of all species grew, except blue monkeys. Populations (except blue monkeys) also increased by colonizing regenerating forests at previously cleared sites. In many cases, populations in these regenerating areas were of comparable size to those in old-growth forest, and there was little evidence that this population increase corresponded with a decline in neighboring old-growth forests. This research demonstrates the potential for management of regenerating forest to be an effective conservation tool and illustrates the importance of conducting and funding long-term monitoring.

Rhino poaching in Africa has risen alarmingly over the last decade, driven by illegal trade and demand for horns in Asia, where it is used medicinally. Traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) has deep cultural roots, and understanding demand drivers will inform conservation decision-making. We interviewed 15 TCM practitioners in Hong Kong, investigating their familiarity with rhino horn, prescription experiences, and perspectives toward its use and trade. All interviewees believe that rhino horn possesses medicinal properties, despite general unfamiliarity with its chemical composition or any active ingredient. We compiled a list of 16 substitutes, finding that dosage adjustments produce equivalent treatment outcomes that compensate for potency differences. While most interviewees expressed support for trade legalization, most would prefer to continue prescribing substitutes. Further research into TCM stakeholder perspectives and preferences for rhino horn can inform conservation policy.

Accurately assessing how biodiversity responds in the Anthropocene is vital. To do so, a number of indicator taxa are commonly used to monitor human-impacted forests and the subsequent recovery of their biodiversity. This makes monitoring more economically feasible, yet only valuable if the responses observed truly reflect the status of biodiversity. Many challenges exist for getting this monitoring right, including choosing the most effective indicators and ultimately choosing the most appropriate methods to capture trends. We have reason to believe that the methods currently used to assess human-impacted tropical forest might be misrepresenting trends related to the degree of impact of disturbance to biodiversity and to the value of secondary forests for biodiversity conservation. Using recent case studies that assessed butterflies, we challenge the paradigm that fruit-baited butterfly traps are the best method for assessing human-impacted tropical forests, and that their use solely along the forest floor is underestimating the impacts to biodiversity in tropical forests. We suggest that alternative or additional methods could provide a more representative picture of the overall butterfly biodiversity responses to human-impacted tropical forests and that similar assessments of other groups and methods should be carried out.

The Formosan pangolin mainly inhabits the lowland forest in Taiwan. Biological information on pangolins is limited due to their solitary behavior. This study reports the first field record of the behavior development and growth pattern of a newborn male Formosan pangolin during the entire nursing period in the wild. The methods used in this study were radio-tagging and camera-trapping. Data collection for this study was conducted from November 2014 until May 2015. The nursing period was 157 days. The infant started to exit the nursing burrow alone at 11 weeks old, with significant soil scraping and licking behaviors. The duration and distance of the exploring were both extended considerably after 15 weeks old. All exploring behaviors that were recorded occurred after the mother had left the burrow. The total body length of the infant pangolin growth was at a relative constant rate of 1.2 cm/week during the nursing period, which was faster than the only record from a hand-reared individual (0.7 cm/week). This study presents a useful method to monitor the maternal behaviors and infant growth pattern for the Formosan pangolin under natural conditions.

Developmental activities have been one of the major drivers of conversion of natural forest areas into mosaics of forest fragments, agriculture, and plantations, threatening the existence of wildlife species in such altered landscapes. Most conservation research and actions are protected area centric and seldom addresses the importance of landscape matrices around these protected areas in providing habitats to a wide range of species. In this article, we bring out the crucial role of natural and anthropogenic habitats for the existence of three charismatic species, namely, Asian elephants, leopard, and lion-tailed macaques. The larger public perception of where the animals should be and where the animals actually are is also discussed. We emphasize that, while habitat generalists often adapt behaviorally and ecologically to modified landscapes, habitat specialists, such as the lion-tailed macaques could find survival harder, with increasing anthropogenic pressures and loss of their habitats.

The Central American tapir Tapirus bairdii is the national animal of Belize. Accidents from vehicle collisions pose a new threat to the species. A total of 14 tapir deaths were recorded from June 2008 through December 2012 in Central Belize District. Two areas were identified as hot spots for tapir-vehicle collisions (TVCs), and spot-speed surveys revealed speeding to be common in that area. More than 47% of the vehicles were traveling above the prescribed speed limit, and another 28% were driving at speeds of 100 kph or faster. In an effort to reduce speed and the risk of TVCs, we deployed two sets of reflective wildlife crossing signs over a 6-km stretch of road. This was followed by an awareness campaign alerting drivers of tapirs’ presence in the area. We saw a significant reduction in speed immediately after the installation of the warning signs, and no TVCs were recorded for the next 10 months. Consequently, camera-trapping and track surveys were undertaken to confirm the species continued presence in the immediate area. Over the next 2 years, only two collisions were recorded along the same stretch of road.

Domestic dog is the most successful invasive mammalian predator species, and reducing its ecological impacts on wildlife is a central conservation goal globally. Free-ranging dogs can negatively interact with wildlife at multiple levels, posing issues for biodiversity conservation in tropical forests, especially in fragmented Atlantic Forest. To optimize future control programs, it is necessary to identify the main factors influencing their habitat use, particularly in natural reserves. We combined camera trapping data and occupancy models to characterize habitat use of dogs in six Atlantic Forest protected areas (134–36,000 ha). Our results show that dogs were more likely to use sites (Ψ^ ≥ 0.90) having higher housing density (≥4.00 houses/km²) or higher proportion of croplands and pasture (≥75%) relative to sites with no houses (Ψ^ = 0.23 ± 0.10) or lower proportion of croplands and pasture (Ψ^ = 0.34 ± 0.08). In addition, dogs had higher detection probability at camera locations on unpaved roads (p^ = 0.33 ± 0.05) relative to off-road sites (p^ = 0.18 ± 0.04), and in small protected areas with high housing density, that is, more disturbed sites, dogs had higher detection probabilities. Our findings indicate that the probability of dogs using a site within protected area is mainly driven by type and intensity of human activity in the surroundings. Given the urgent need to control free-ranging dogs within protected areas, we strongly recommend that managers target sites/areas within and near protected areas that have a rural housing density ≥ 4.00 houses/km² or higher proportion of croplands and pasture (≥75%).

Restoration projects designed to promote one ecosystem service may have synergistic benefits to other services. Therefore, bundling them can be an effective way to maximize the return to the investments in programs of payments for ecosystem services (PES). Here, we investigated the additional gain of restoration actions—which were implemented as part of a PES program to protect a key watershed for water supply—on increasing functional landscape connectivity in the Atlantic Forest region of southeastern Brazil. Using a landscape ecology approach, we estimated the amount of forest cover before (2006) and after (2012) restoration activities by the PES program and changes in structural and functional landscape connectivity for birds with varying gap-crossing capabilities. Forest cover increased from 42.5 to 86.1 ha after the implementation of restoration projects by the PES program. In the simulated scenarios of landscape connectivity, the mean patch size of functionally connected forest increased by 1,034%, 392%, 248%, and 94% for species with gap-crossing capabilities of 0, 20, 40, and 60 m, respectively. Our results highlight the potential for incorporating biodiversity conservation objectives into PES projects primarily designed to enhance water-related ecosystem services.

Central American dry forest has experienced high rates of deforestation and intense human-induced disturbance. As a consequence, the remaining forests exist almost entirely as small, degraded, and isolated fragments. Until now, the effect of anthropogenic disturbance on the diversity of Central American tropical dry forest is largely unexplored, making it difficult to understand the consequences for plant and animal communities and the provision of ecological services. Here, we address the impact of small-scale anthropogenic disturbance on local richness and abundance of hummingbirds in a dry forest of Guatemala. To do this, we established 15 point counts on nine transects located within patches of dry forest with different levels of human-induced disturbance. Visits to each site were done twice during the dry season and twice during the rainy season. We found differences in overall number of hummingbird registered between the dry and the wet seasons; we registered higher number of hummingbirds at the end of the wet season and beginning of the dry season, when the availability of flowers was higher. These data suggest that seasonal resource variation could be an important factor influencing the variation in the number of hummingbird present at our study area. Our results also showed resilience of hummingbirds to different levels of disturbance probably related to the generalist behavior of the dominant resident species and the availability of food resources for hummingbirds at different levels of disturbance.

Conflicts between human beings and wild animals have been recorded in many parts of the world and mainly involve damage to crops, predation of domestic animals, and attacks on humans. This study presents, by means of a literature review, a worldview of such conflicts and their implications. The results found 262 species of terrestrial vertebrates recorded in conflicts with humans, of which 53 are included in the list of threatened species. The results indicated that damage to agricultural crops and attacks on domestic animals are the most common factors of conflicts and that socioeconomic factors seem to be correlated with their incidence. Studies aimed at finding more efficient ways to reduce conflicts and lessen the impact on animal populations are relevant to the search for a more peaceful coexistence between humans and wild animals.

Illegal, artisanal and small-scale gold mining (ASGM) often occurs in remote highly biodiverse areas, such as the Madre de Dios region of Peru. Mercury used in gold mining bioaccumulates in the environment and poses developmental, hormonal, and neurological threats to wildlife. The impact of ASGM on biodiversity remains largely unknown. We used geographic information science to create a spatial model of pollution risk from mining sites, in order to predict locations and species assemblages at risk. Multicriteria evaluation was used to determine how flow accumulation, distance from mining areas, total suspended sediment load, and soil porosity influenced the vulnerability of regions to mercury pollution. Results suggest that there is considerable opportunity for protection of areas with high biodiversity and vulnerability north of the Madre de Dios River where much of the land is not protected. Our study highlights the need for future ASGM research to consider more than deforestation risk alone while protecting the areas’ unmatched biodiversity.

There has been no further change in the deforestation rate in the Brazilian Amazon since our 2013 article in Tropical Conservation Science on the dramatic reduction in deforestation in the late 2000s. This lack of change was actually a remarkable occurrence because deforestation remained stable during a period of major economic recession and great political turbulence at the national level. Coverage of Brazilian Amazon deforestation in the global media during this period was misleading, emphasizing short-term increases in deforestation and erroneously presenting them as “balancing” the earlier dramatic reduction. However, the steady level of deforestation during this period does represent a political failure in which national political leaders did not achieve—or even try to achieve—the eminently feasible goal of zero deforestation.

Land-use changes are one of the main causes of biodiversity loss. It would be expected that species with restricted habitats and distribution should experience the main negative effects of the modification of natural environments. To exemplify the potential effect of land transformation on restricted species, we focused on the potential habitat loss of six endemic and quasi-endemic species to Mexico (Ortalis poliocephala, Melanerpes chrysogenys, Trogon citreolus, Pheugopedius felix, Uropsila leucogastra, and Arremonops rufivirgatus) whose distributions include the state of Guerrero, in southern Mexico. Species distribution models were generated for each species, and potential habitat loss was evaluated using three temporal vegetation and land-use maps (1997, 2003, and 2013). These analyses were then repeated only for tropical dry forest, one of the most dominant ecosystem in the state of Guerrero and with the most severe transformation rates. The potential habitat of all species decreased considerably, particularly for the last periods; the habitats for M. chrysogenys and T. citreolus were reduced by 78% in 2013. The potential habitats of U. leucogastra and P. felix decreased to a lesser extent during the three periods. The reduction tendencies were higher for dry forest than for the remaining habitats, which were ranged from 88% to 93% for U. leucogastra and M. chrysogenys, respectively. These results suggest major negative potential effects of land transformation on the endemic species’ habitat.

Baird’s tapir (Tapirus bairdii) is endangered throughout its distribution range mainly due to habitat loss and overhunting. An increasing number of studies have been done on the distribution, abundance, and other ecological aspects of this mammal in Mexico and Central America within the past decade. These studies have shed new light on the ecology and behavior of Baird’s tapirs in the wild and, more importantly, some of them suggest that tapir populations face a variety of circumstances ranging from local recovery within the largest protected areas through increasing isolation in unprotected forest fragments across southeastern Mexico. This work presents a perspective on the results from those studies and their implications for tapir conservation in the country.

Antillean manatees (Trichechus manatus manatus), a subspecies of the West Indian manatee, is listed as endangered species in the Red List of Threatened Species of the International Union for Conservation of Nature. The aims of this research were to survey on the possible regional genetic structure in the southern Gulf of Mexico and to compare genetic status of a landlocked population in Laguna de las Ilusiones (IL) with individuals from localities with no barriers to displacement and breed (open population [OP]). We analyzed 45 manatee skin samples collected from different locations in Tabasco (n = 38, including 19 from IL), Veracruz (n = 3), Campeche (n = 2), and Chiapas (n = 2). The genomic DNA was isolated and PCR amplifications were performed for each sample using 28 microsatellite loci, previously designed for West Indian manatees and described as polymorphic for this species. Two clusters (k = 2) were identified by STRUCTURE. The analysis of both a priori populations (IL and OP) indicate that the global values of F_ST and R_ST (F_ST=0.049, R_ST=0.077) were significant. The H_E for IL was 0.38 ± 0.03 and for OP was 0.49 ± 0.01. The average number of alleles N_A for IL was 2.21 ± 0.09 and for OP was 2.32 ± 0.09. The overall inbreeding coefficient was F_IS=−0.013 for analyzed populations. Genetic diversity was low. The IL population had slightly lower genetic diversity compared with OP, which could be explained by isolation of that small group, so conservation plans for IL should be considered as priority.

Rafflesia (Rafflesiaceae) is a genus of parasitic plants that is endemic to Southeast Asia. Many species in this genus are of high conservation concern in many countries due to their rare and threatened status. However, the ecology of Rafflesia species is not yet fully understood, particularly in terms of flower predation. Here, we present new observations of predation on a Rafflesia patma flower bud using a camera-trap study, together with the results of a survey of flower damage in the three Rafflesia species that occur on Java, Indonesia. We found that two small mammals predated a flower bud of R. patma in Pangandaran (West Java, Indonesia), one of which has not previously been identified as a predator of Rafflesia flowers. We also detected wasp infection in Rafflesia rochussenii and predation by another animal on Rafflesia zollingeriana. Overall, flower bud predation by animals damaged up to 10.65% of the surveyed flowers.

In recent years, there has been a trend for African states to delegate protected area management to private partners. Central Africa is confronted with rapidly declining wildlife populations, with scarce funding and poor incentives as root causes. This raises the question as to whether management delegation can counter this trend. However, our understanding of the efficiency of such partnerships and how they need to be handled is poor. Based on hands-on experiences and external evaluations, we developed best practices of delegated management partnerships in Central Africa. This triggered the development of the here presented Central African perspective, enriching a debate that is biased toward other parts of the continent and dominated by private conservation partners. In particular, we emphasize that in Central Africa, (a) protected areas with delegated management are among the most prestigious ones, albeit with serious management challenges; (b) it is the importance of the protected area that justifies its inclusion in formal development cooperation agreements—the dominant source of funding; (c) lack of legal provisions has been an obstacle to initiate delegated management partnerships for some countries and its wider use in others; (d) increasingly, foundations are being created as implementing national entities; and (e) raising national capacities in handling delegated management should be at the forefront of partnerships. We conclude by highlighting the importance of the new regional best practices that are based on the four stages: identification, preparation, negotiation, and implementation, of which the first three have often been neglected by Central African governments.

Until recently, it was assumed that the pathogenic fungus Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (Bd) was not widely distributed in warm ecosystems such as lowland tropical rainforests because high environmental temperatures limit its growth. However, several studies have documented Bd infection in lowland rainforest amphibians over the past decade. In addition, a recent study focusing on museum-stored specimens showed that Bd has been present in the lowland Amazon for more than 80 years. These findings lent support to the idea that some lowland rainforest habitats offer suitable environmental conditions for Bd growth, even though most lowland areas may contain suboptimal conditions limiting the pathogen spread and growth. Here, we surveyed four sites in southeast Peru to examine the prevalence and the intensity of infection of Bd in lowland Amazonian amphibians and to fill a gap between two areas where Bd has been present for more than a decade. In one of these “hotspots” of Bd infection, the upper slopes of Manu National Park, several species experienced population declines attributed to Bd epizootics over the past 15 years. We also examined the thermal profile of the main microhabitats used by lowland Amazonian frogs to infer whether these microhabitats offer suitable thermal conditions for Bd growth. We detected Bd in nine lowland frog species and variation in prevalence of infection across years. Our findings suggest that the temperatures in the leaf litter and understory vegetation of some habitats offer suitable conditions for Bd growth.

Spatial data are increasingly ubiquitous and accessible. Understanding precisely where certified farms are located in relation to other variables can help uncover their potential to influence biodiversity, forest cover, and local livelihoods. Spatial mapping opens up many opportunities for sustainability standards organizations to test, understand, and demonstrate their impact. However, the potential of spatial data remains largely unrecognized and underdeveloped. For our recent analysis, we mapped certified farms for tropical commodity crops in unprecedented detail. We review ways in which spatial data are being used to enhance the positive impacts of certification on rural development and biodiversity conservation and suggest four steps by which standards organizations could build on this work to make the most of spatial data.

The species Syagrus romanzoffiana is a monocot belonging to the family Arecaceae; it is a palm endemic to South America and is widely distributed throughout the southeast and south of Brazil, including the State of Rio Grande do Sul. To estimate the genetic diversity and structure of the species in the watersheds of Rio Grande do Sul, five simple sequence repeat markers were used to analyze 90 individuals, representing three populations. The genetic structure of S. romanzoffiana groups was evaluated through the analysis of molecular variance and a multivariate analysis based on Nei’s genetic distance. The evaluated populations showed significant intrapopulation molecular variation (F_ST = 0.11). The observed heterozygosity (H_O = 0.17) was lower than the expected heterozygosity (H_E = 0.75). These data indicate that although the number of individuals is high, the diversity is low for some indices. Our findings suggest that further studies are needed, particularly on the genetics of natural populations of S. romanzoffiana in Rio Grande do Sul State, to fully characterize their genetic diversity and structure and determine strategies and priority areas for species conservation.

The Giant Nuthatch Sitta magna is restricted to southwestern China, eastern Myanmar, and northern Thailand. Although globally endangered, most aspects of its ecology remain as yet unquantified. To assess its habitat associations and population size, we conducted point counts with playback at 42 sample points across 12 discrete historical and potential localities within its Thai range during October to November 2015. Eleven habitat variables were measured, including three site-level vegetation variables and eight landscape variables were assessed, using geographic information system land cover maps. N-mixture models were applied to estimate density and extrapolate the size of the population. The Giant Nuthatch was found at four localities (12 of the 42 sample points) at elevations between 1,192 m and 1,738 m. It was not detected at four historical Giant Nuthatch localities in protected areas. Abundance increased with increasing elevation, increasing proportion of evergreen forest, and greater distance from villages. We estimated that the Thai population of Giant Nuthatch was approximately 964 individuals based on an average density of 1.96 individuals/km² in approximately 491.8 km² of appropriate forest habitat at 1,192 m to 1,951 m elevation. This may be an overestimate because available forest cover maps and images do not distinguish between the characteristic, patchily distributed, lower montane open pine–oak forest association used by Giant Nuthatch and denser, closed-canopy forest. Although Thailand’s Giant Nuthatch population may be better protected than those in adjoining countries, we suggest that it remains threatened by forest fragmentation and habitat degradation throughout its range. Further comprehensive research is needed to assess the status of the remaining global population and the reasons for its scarcity.

We studied the diet and prey preferences of tigers (Panthera tigris tigris Linnaeus, 1758) in Bardia National Park, Nepal using DNA-based techniques from their scat samples. Remains of prey species in scats were identified through microscopic hair morphology analysis. Of 101 scats, DNA was extracted from 84 samples and 75 were assigned to tigers (34 males and 41 females). We found seven and six prey species in the diet of male tiger and female tiger, respectively. The diet of male and female tigers did not differ significantly, with chital (Axis axis Erxleben, 1777) as the most abundant prey species. The Jacobs index suggested a preference of male tigers for sambar deer (Cervus unicolor Kerr, 1792) and wild pig (Sus scrofa Linnaeus, 1758) and of the female tigers for wild pig and chital. Bardia National Park has the highest density of tiger prey species (92.6 animals/km²) among the national parks of Nepal. Still, the density of larger prey species is relatively low. Increasing the density of larger prey like sambar and the reintroduction of larger prey species like gaur (Bos gaurus Smith, 1827) can further enhance the tiger population in the park. Our study demonstrates that tigers mostly preyed on wild species, indicating a low level of tiger–livestock interaction. Hence, this park seems to be a prospective area for tiger conservation in a long run.

In the face of increased defaunation in tropical regions, embracing the complexity of wildlife population trends is important to guide the development of effective conservation and restoration strategies. Here, based on a case study in Democratic Republic of the Congo, we use an ethnozoological approach, with a protocol that captures spatially explicit and temporal ecological knowledge on defaunation. Our case study evidences the overall depletion profile for the majority of mammal species in the whole landscape and particularly for red colobus, orycterope, and chimpanzee. The elephant has already disappeared locally, and okapi and forest buffalo only persist in the northern part of the landscape. On the other hand, postdepletion sustainability seems to characterize Yangambi Reserve, with more stable populations of fast-reproducing/small-sized species. Local extinctions or sharp declines in mammal populations in our landscape are either the direct consequence of conflict or the result of cascading effects that have their origins in the rebellions between 1996 and 2002. From a conservation perspective, the challenge is to understand how the depletion process can be reversed in a postconflict context and to identify the levers that can inverse the cascading effect to allow species recovery. We encourage the use of our methodology in regions that are regularly used by a significant number of observers. The proposed methodology provides cost-effective, reliable, and spatially explicit data on population trends, covering for a wide range of species and allows to understand the historical pattern of defaunation as well the wider context in which changes occurred.

Mammals play important ecological roles in tropical regions but are difficult to study due to discrete habits, low population densities, and large home ranges. Thus, the use of attractive substances has frequently been adopted to quantify the distribution and abundance of elusive mammals. However, the insight generated from studies using attractants is often limited by a lack of methodological standardization. To inform the use of attractants in the Neotropics, we reviewed 30 years of the scientific literature that used some type of attractant in mammal studies. From a total of 60 studies, the majority (65%) did not use any control (or pseudocontrol) in their sampling design and only 40% used some statistical test to explicitly evaluate the efficiency of the attractant used. A wide range of edible (animal or vegetal origin) and inedible substances (e.g., scent lures) were used alone or in combination and the effects differed greatly among orders and species. Most studies (67%) targeted or registered carnivores, and this order had the largest number of substances (edible and inedible) used across all studies. There seems to be only a consensus in the use and attraction effect with frugivorous bats (Phyllostomidae) with fruits, essential oils, and floral compounds. The lack of standardization of use of attractants in mammal studies undermines the comparability of results among studies. We conclude with some general guidelines to maximize comparability among studies and to enhance the potential usefulness of the use of attractants for mammals.

Apex predators are in widespread decline, in many occasions as a consequence of the demise of their prey. Harpy Eagles (Harpia harpyja) are the largest extant eagles on Earth and keystone predators in the tropical forests they inhabit. Although Harpy Eagle prey composition has been described by a number of studies, diet data from primary forests are rare on the literature. Here, I describe the diet of Harpy Eagles living in the Central Suriname Reserve primary forests and review literature data to provide an accessible reference to all known reports of Harpy Eagle prey species. In Central Suriname Nature Reserve, Harpy Eagles made frequent use of game prey such as large primates, large birds, and terrestrial animals, besides what is considered their staple prey, sloths. Nine new prey species were recorded, most of them game animals. This totals 102 prey species when summed with literature data. This information provides new insights into the autecology of Harpy Eagles in Neotropical forests, enabling a better understanding of the ecological effects of apex predator.

The success of biodiversity conservation in African countries depends to a large extend on the cooperation of local communities. This study compared factors that influence attitudes of local communities toward the conservation of the Tarangire National Park (Tarangire NP) in Tanzania and Mole National Park (Mole NP) in Ghana. The purpose was to find out if the predominantly agricultural-communities around the Mole NP in Ghana will differ in park-attitude than the predominantly pastoral-communities around the Tarangire NP in Tanzania. Household survey was used to assess attitudes and focus group discussions used to elicit further information from respondents to complement the survey data. The study surveyed 365 households in 7 villages: 3 villages adjacent to the Tarangire NP and 4 villages adjacent to the Mole NP. There was significant difference between the park-attitudes of residents in communities near the Mole NP and their counterparts in communities near the Tarangire NP. However, respondents in both countries showed slightly positive and negative attitudes toward the parks as ecological entities and as community development agents, respectively. Factors that had significant effects on attitudes include: “knowledge of park rules,” “employment in park,” “distance between village and park,” “household size,” “access to non-timber forest products,” and “livelihood activity.” The findings suggest that any efforts aimed at increasing local community support for any of the two national parks should critically consider livelihoods diversification, population control, and extensive conservation education in neighboring communities.

India, a megabiodiversity nation, is home to 4,800 species and 1.3 billion people. The proximity of people and wildlife produces a wide variety of human–wildlife interactions particularly with forest-dwelling communities embedded deep within protected areas (PAs). We evaluated people–park relationships through the 421 families in Thengumarahada located between Sathyamangalam and Mudumalai Tiger Reserves in India. This settlement was originally granted land rights in 1948 but has been subleased many times over. We examined attitudes toward wildlife, PA, experiences of conflict, and challenges faced by people. Logistic regression models evaluated the factors associated with household losses and their attitudes. Thirty-four percent of households reported crop loss and 10% reported livestock predation. Crop loss was associated with growing rice and bananas and negatively with forest cover. Depredation was primarily associated with 87% of households grazing livestock in the forest. Usage of mitigation measures was not significantly associated with reducing conflict. Despite conflict losses and government pressure, only 34% of families expressed an interest in settling outside the reserved forest. People’s motivations to remain in the forest hamlets included free resource availability (28%) and tradition-familiar livelihoods (29%). People’s mistrust of the forest department was heightened by the lack of awareness about (29%) and payment of compensation (3%). Given the frequency of conflict, the lack of infrastructure, inadequate compensation payments, and limited interest in relocation, balancing people–wildlife relationships in the forests of Sathyamangalam and Mudumalai Tiger Reserves remains a formidable task.

Weaving local and scientific knowledge systems is important to enhance understanding, practice, and ethics toward natural resources sustainable utilization. We focused on wetlands and waterbirds and used local knowledge and perceptions by key informants in and around a protected area in Zimbabwe to investigate (a) trends in rainfall and water quality, (b) waterbird trends and associated uses, and (c) drivers, mechanisms, and impacts behind waterbird trends, to understand waterbird ecological dynamics. We confronted these perceptions to available data locally and globally. Furthermore, we explored local ideas to improve waterbird survival. Associations between informant variables and trends in water quality were tested using the χ² test while multiple correspondence analyses were used to explore drivers, mechanisms, and impacts of bird trends. Wildfowl were cited the most (48.7% of all citations), probably linked to their use as food, and they were negatively driven by human predation but would increase when left to follow natural processes. Changes in natural processes and wetlands drove large piscivores into decline, but their populations would increase when predation was controlled. Generalist species responded positively when climate and resources were not limiting. We then discus the feasibility of the suggested waterbird conservation remedies: education, increasing surface water, law enforcement, sustainable use guidelines, and modified drinking troughs for large herbivores. Local knowledge and available local trends data were inconsistent with International Union for the Conservation of Nature trend status. The local sources of knowledge were not correlated but broadly consistent. We also discuss the scale discrepancies and how the sources of information can be complementary.

Protected area zoning is a management strategy used to define and delimit land units for specific purposes, such as critical areas for conservation and areas for recreation activities. Nevertheless, human activities in and around protected areas produce anthropogenic noise that is difficult to mitigate and control. To assess the efficacy of protected area zoning in preserving natural soundscapes, controlling anthropogenic noise intrusion, and conserving biodiversity in El Yunque National Forest, Puerto Rico, I simultaneously sampled three management zones (protected, recreational, and buffer) with passive acoustic monitoring and conducted a soundscape analysis. There was no difference in the overall acoustic space used among the three management areas, but compositional differences among the soundscapes were detected. Such variation was related to differences in species composition along the elevation gradient, habitat transformation, and anthropogenic noise. Anthropogenic noise was more conspicuous in the buffer and recreational areas, where many bird species are classified as highly vulnerable to noise. Although the management zones in El Yunque National Forest were not created for the purpose of noise control, management is shown to be useful for minimizing noise intrusion in the strictly protected zone. In recreational and buffer areas, complementary strategies such as traffic limitations, limiting access to specific areas, and noise reduction educational programs should be implemented to maintain the natural soundscape while conserving biodiversity. Finally, the noise vulnerability classification proposed in this study could be a useful tool for assisting managers and researchers in defining priority strategies for sensitive species that require special attention and protection.

Knowing plant functional trait variation is integral to understanding species coexistence and biodiversity maintenance. To explore how variations in a given trait vary across different spatiotemporal and ecological organizational scales, we performed a linear mixed model and varcomp function to partition the variance in four key functional traits (specific leaf area [SLA], leaf area [LA], leaf thickness [LTH], and leaf chlorophyll content [CHL]) from 5,418 individuals of 51 species across four nested ecological scales (plot, species, individual, and leaf) in riparian plant communities of the Lijiang River, Guilin, southwest China. We found that the relative contribution of all traits is similar: species (0.51–0.70) > individual (0.21–0.27) > leaf and error (0.09–0.20) > plot (0–0.07). For all traits, interspecific variability was higher than intraspecific variability and the plot level accounted for only a minute percentage of the total variance, despite relatively high species turnover between plots. These results suggest that the variation of leaf functional traits is dominated by interspecific variation, but data also showed a substantial amount of intraspecific trait variability. Thus, intraspecific variation of functional traits should be taken into account if assembly rules in plant communities are to be properly understood. The low, or even lack of, functional trait variance at plot level provides substantial support for the idea that trait-based habitat filtering could play a central role in plant community assembly.

Mangrove is the dominant vegetation in the estuaries, river deltas, and coastal lagoons of tropical and subtropical regions. A number of factors affect the structure and productivity of mangrove forests, including hydrology, soil salinity, and soil type. In this study, litter production in the Centla Wetland Biosphere Reserve in Tabasco, Mexico, was evaluated as a function of the physical–chemical properties of water and sediments. The study cycle was from June 2015 to June 2016. Litterfall was measured, and water samples were collected at the surface, interstitial, and subterranean level to estimate the physical–chemical parameters. Sediment samples were also collected to determine the texture, pH, organic matter, bulk density, and moisture content. The mangrove was composed of Rhizophora mangle (L.), Laguncularia racemosa (L.) Gaertn, and Avicennia germinans (L.) Stearn. The pH was presented in a range of 5.3 to 7.4, and spatially, the texture of sediment varied significantly, with high values of sand in Playa (73.7% ± 3.4%) and high content of clay (57.2% ± 1.4%) and organic matter (41% ± 2% average) in mangrove riverine type. The highest salinity of interstitial water was encountered at Beach (29 ± 3.0 PSU) and of groundwater (36.4 ± 1.5 PSU). Overall, the average estimated litter fall was 10.45 ton·ha⁻¹·year⁻¹. These results indicate that the litter production is related to the response of the mangrove to the variation of the environmental conditions of each site (substrate texture, hydroperiod, soil moisture, water salinity, water redox potential, and soil organic matter).

Never before have we had so many different ways to investigate China subtropical climate change as it is gradually becoming significant to know the details about the relationship between climate change and China, specifically in subtropical areas. To learn the current situation and emerging trends of China subtropical climate change research, this article utilizes CiteSpace to provide a general picture about the research field by analyzing 926 publications between 1990 and 2017, which are retrieved from Web of Science. According to the results, some interesting findings are illustrated in this study: (a) The papers that investigate interdecadal change and data-model comparison made great theoretical contributions to China subtropical climate change research; (b) China, the United States, Australia, and Germany are the biggest contributors to China subtropical climate change research, and most of the productive institutions are from China; (c) the emerging trends of China subtropical climate change research are “soil moisture,” “net ecosystem exchange,” and “autotrophic respiration”; and (d) most of China subtropical climate change studies are related to atmospheric model intercomparison project model, CO₂ fertilization, and pollen record. This article provides an overall analysis about China subtropical climate change research for researchers who are interested in this field to do further investigations.

Translocation is increasingly common in conservation but remains controversial due, in part, to limited information. Here, in a brief study, we consider the translocation of the southern white rhinoceros Ceratotherium simum simum to a fenced 64-km² reserve in Uganda (a replacement for the locally extinct native northern subspecies, Ceratotherium simum cottoni). We examined the condition, behavior, and habitat use of two female-calf groups. Rhinos were least active during the early afternoon. Both groups spent more time feeding in Microchloa kunthii grasslands than expected given the small extent of such areas but spent most time in the more abundant woodlands and Hyparrhenia grasslands. The small ranges of the two groups, 11.8 and 9.0 km² (100 h of observations over a 1-month period in 2011), and their apparent good health suggest satisfactory feeding conditions. Reassuringly, we identify no concerns but also note that our judgments are constrained by limited information and guidance. There is scope for novel observations, for example, our observations suggest that mothers lead calves more frequently in habitats with reduced visibility versus more open habitats. Every translocation is an experiment, but lessons will be lost without greater emphasis on transparency and assessments.

Enrichment planting is a strategy to increase tree diversity and reintroduce desirable species in restored forests, mainly in fragmented landscapes. However, the conditions that improve the performance of enrichment planted seedlings are not yet fully known. Here, we evaluate the role that overstory taxonomic diversity and mean overstory to seedling phylogenetic distance have as predictors of early performance of native tree seedlings planted beneath mixed-species restoration plantations in the Brazilian Atlantic Forest. By applying a phylogenetic approach, our study responds to recent calls for testing the application of such tools in restoration. We planted 12 mid- to late-successional species beneath a mixed-species restoration plantation with three nested tree diversity levels of 19, 58, and 107 species and estimated the mean phylogenetic distance between each seedling species and the overstory community. Seedling performance was not significantly affected by overstory diversity or mean phylogenetic distance. Overall good performance of the seedlings shows that enrichment planting beneath a mixed-species overstory can be successful even under variations in overstory species number and phylogenetic distance. However, significant species-specific differences in performance highlight the importance of an informed selection of which species to enrich plant.

The impact of habitat loss and modification on amphibians in the tropics is catastrophic. Ecologists must devote their limited time and resources to research that will allow for the most positive impact on the conservation of species into the future. I suggest a framework to aid in organizing research questions that center on understanding the patterns and underlying mechanisms of how species respond to habitat change. The first step is determining which abiotic and biotic factors have changed in the modified habitat compared with the intact habitat. Then, based on species-specific characteristics that mediate the mechanism, we can identify how vital rates of a given species are impacted and lead to the outcome of either growth or decline at the population level. I apply this framework to previous work to examine how breeding site use and tadpole performance contribute to our understanding of mechanisms that underlie occupancy patterns of species across a modified tropical landscape in the Osa Peninsula, Costa Rica.

The Atlantic Forest has been threatened by frequent human disturbances that affect its ecological processes. Lianas are an important component of tropical forest dynamics and, under chronic disturbance, may proliferate vigorously, potentially arresting secondary succession and hindering forest recovery. Our study aims to analyze abundance and diversity of liana and trees in different life stages in a disturbed semidecidual seasonal tropical forest fragment in southeast Brazil. We sampled the species richness and relative abundance in the following life stages of lianas and trees: I—seed (as seed arrival and seed bank processes), II—seedling, III—juvenile, and IV—adult. Lianas are more abundant than trees after the seedling stage, while trees showed more rarefied species richness only at the seed rain stage. Our results show that dispersal does not seem to be a bottleneck for either liana or tree community in disturbed fragments, but competition at the seedling stage may give lianas advantage over trees. Lianas may proliferate abundantly in forest fragments, even decades after disturbance. We recommend interventions for the management and restoration of disturbed forest fragments dominated by lianas to target this life form in life stages where they suppress the forest community, such as after the seedling stage.

Homegardens are small-scale agroforestry systems consisting of parcels of land on homesteads in which diverse plant species are cultivated in several strata, often integrating herbaceous, tree, vine, crop, and animal components. Among the vines in Mayan homegardens in Yucatán is the pitahaya (Hylocereus undatus), a cactus with edible fruit. We use this species as a model to identify changes in the level of knowledge and management of homegardens due to modernization (increased tourism, paved roads, and urban expansion) in order to propose conservation strategies. Structured interviews were carried out in 100 homegardens; information regarding economics, language, school attendance, and the distance to cities were gathered. Currently, pitahaya is mostly eaten as a sorbet, and women harvest its fruit more often than men do. It is the elderly who teach the next generations about the use and care of pitahayas. The model that best explained the level of knowledge and management about pitahaya included variables such as the location of homegardens; their distance to the nearest city; as well as language, gross domestic product, and school attendance rate of home gardeners. We found that there is less traditional knowledge about pitahayas when home gardeners have higher school attendance and that not only pitahayas but also homegardens near cities are being neglected. We suggest that conservation planning for pitahayas and homegardens should include education programs on their ecological, nutritional, and economic importance. Homegardens, whose owners have the highest level of knowledge about their management and biodiversity, should be interactively conserved, and the knowledge of home gardeners should be acknowledged.

Protected areas have been important in reducing tropical forest biodiversity loss. Costa Rica has been a model country in protecting forests and promoting conservation. However, many Costa Rican protected areas are surrounded by highly modified habitat and may be losing species, either because they are too small to support viable populations or are too isolated to allow for population connectivity. We used camera traps to study terrestrial mammal and terrestrial bird populations in the Monteverde-Arenal Bioregion of northwestern Costa Rica. We sampled core protected areas and nearby unprotected, fragmented habitats. Of 33 species historically found in the region, we detected 25. However, most species were rarely detected, and only five were found more than once per 30 days of camera time. The most commonly detected species represented major feeding groups, including obligate herbivores, omnivores, and obligate carnivores. Most ungulates were rare and may not have viable population sizes. However, a top predator, the puma (Puma concolor), was commonly detected. Fragmented areas had lower abundance and fewer species detected; a few species were not detected at all, even though some of them were abundant in the core protected areas. We suggest that conservation efforts are protecting some terrestrial mammals and birds, and there is a functioning food web. However, many species are either rare or extirpated, indicating the Monteverde-Arenal Bioregion is a partially defaunated landscape.

Biodiversity hotspots like tropical lowland rainforests in Sumatra are threatened by the agricultural expansion, which increases the deforestation rate in Indonesia, which is highest worldwide. Main land-use change drivers in Indonesia include the production of rubber and palm oil, both of which lead to a high forest conversion rate. In the remaining and degraded forest patches, species diversity has declined and species composition has been altered. Effects of habitat fragmentation and land-use change on genetic structure were frequently investigated at the species level and compared across plant species, but not for plant communities. In addition, the effect of land-use change on the genetic structure of plants has not yet been investigated. Using Amplified Fragment Length Polymorphism marker, the genetic diversity of 112 dominant plant species was assessed in four different land-use systems in Sumatra: old growth tropical lowland rainforest, jungle rubber, rubber plantation, and oil palm plantation. The four systems were investigated in two regions with four replicates, respectively. Because of different species compositions, characterized by different life history traits, forest and jungle rubber plots showed the highest diversity level, while oil palm and rubber plantations showed the lower diversity levels. The two intensively managed plantation systems showed similar genetic diversity levels as the tree dominated systems but are dominated by mainly alien species. This indicates that oil palm and rubber plantations could not be identified as habitats of conservational value. The newly introduced collection and analysis approach presents a universally applicable method to investigate different ecosystems in their plant genetic diversity to support the identification of habitats with high conservational value.

Numbers of wild Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) have been decreasing gradually throughout Asia due primarily to human activities, such as poaching, and habitat encroachment and destruction that lead to human–elephant conflict. Sustainability problems exist in captive populations as well, where morbidity and mortality rates are high and reproduction is low. Determining the genetic diversity of these populations is essential for conservation and sustainable utilization efforts. Intersimple sequence repeat markers were used to assess the genetic variation and differentiation in 97 captive Asian elephants from seven elephant camps in Chiang Mai, Thailand. The nine primers chosen for the analysis revealed 88 bands in male and 115 bands in female elephants, of which 37 (42.05%) and 83 (63.64%) were polymorphic, respectively. Shannon’s index information (I = 2.415 ± 0.054) and expected heterozygosity (He = 0.892 ± 0.008) indicated high species-level genetic diversity. The fixation index (F_st) was −0.130 ± 0.016, demonstrating there was no genetic subdivision between populations. A cluster analysis was performed using Unweight Pair-Group Method with Arithmetic Mean and dendrograms, which illustrated genetic relationships among captive Asian elephants that included 2 main clusters across the seven camps and 27 clusters for the 97 individual elephants. This high variability may be due to the different origins of these individuals, including originating from other Asian countries. Thus, this study showed that intersimple sequence repeat marker analysis was effective in demonstrating high genetic diversity among captive Asian elephants in Chiang Mai province and found cluster differences that could be used to guide breeding management to decrease the risk of inbreeding among Asian elephant groups.

India has the largest population of Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) worldwide. Habitat fragmentation and loss of habitat have diminished food resources, and wild elephants have resorted to raiding crops grown within or adjacent to their home range. Elephants are often deliberately electrocuted for foraying into human-used areas, and this is a key reason for elephant mortalities in India. We collated data on elephant mortalities for a 13-year period (2003–2016) from the Forest Department records. We conducted surveys across Sonitpur District (East and West Forest Division), Assam, where electric fences are installed and documented their location, properties, and elephant presence. Overall, 138 elephants died between 2003 and 2016 due to retaliation, electrocution, accidental or natural death, and unknown reasons. We recorded 47 electric fences (27 lethal and 20 nonlethal) of which 49% were situated within notified forest boundaries. Most lethal fences (63%) protected agriculture fields and were seasonal installations, whereas nonlethal fences protected settlements and forest edges (25% each) and were permanent. Individuals controlled 52% of all lethal fences, while nonlethal fences were primarily controlled by the communities (50%). Most lethal fences (83%) were less than 1 km, whereas 80% of nonlethal fences were over 1 km. Elephant presence was seasonal in 56% of lethal fence locations and year-round in 85% of nonlethal fence locations. We postulate habitat loss and encroachment as two key drivers of fence installations. We recommend rehabilitation of encroachers, monitoring of areas where electricity is tapped illegally, sensitization of local communities, and involving multiple stakeholders to help reduce elephant mortalities because of electrocution.

We assessed the effects of seed priming and soil retainers on seed germination and early seedling performance of useful species in a tropical semideciduous forest in Veracruz, México. We determined mass and water and lipid content in the seeds of Albizia saman, Cedrela odorata, Enterolobium cyclocarpum, and Swietenia macrophylla. The seeds were exposed to hydropriming and natural priming (seed burial inside the soil) and germinated at 25°C and 25/35°C. The produced seedlings were grown in a shade house and planted in a plain terrain and a hillside (slope 75%). Seedling growth and survival were evaluated. S. macrophylla and E. cyclocarpum seeds had the lowest and highest water content, respectively. S. macrophylla and C. odorata had oil seeds. A. saman and E. cyclocarpum seeds had physical dormancy. Natural priming improved germination in A. saman, C. odorata, and S. macrophylla while hydropriming and 25/35°C enhanced germination in E. cyclocarpum. In the shade house, natural priming promoted seedling growth in all studied species and in the field survival of A. saman and S. macrophylla. In E. cyclocarpum, this effect was obtained with hydropriming in the plain terrain. In the hillside, hydropriming and natural priming and 25/35°C improved survival of S. macrophylla and E. cyclocarpum, respectively. Seed burial for 8 days improved germination, seedling performance, and survival. To bury seeds inside a pot placed in a shade house induced natural priming in C. odorata. We suggest natural priming for A. saman, C. odorata, and S. macrophylla, and hydropriming for E. cyclocarpum seeds. Germination pretreatments were inexpensive and easy tools potentially applicable in restoration and conservation programs.

Understanding the responses of species diversity and dominant species to soil nutrient dynamics can enhance our knowledge of species coexistence and the recovery of secondary forests. Here, we assessed how species diversity and the abundance of dominant species varied as a function of soil nutrients at early- and mid-successional stages in two tropical monsoon coastal secondary forests in southern China. Results showed that species diversity was higher in the mid-successional stage. Species diversity was significantly correlated with organic matter and available P in both stages. The abundance of dominant species was significantly associated with organic matter, K, P, and N. Soil nutrients are therefore likely to play vitally important roles in the successional trajectory and restoration of these tropical coastal secondary forests.

Protected areas are often promoted as an important solution to preserving biodiversity. However, permeable edges can undermine the effectiveness of preserves because animals may move into adjacent human-dominated unprotected areas. We investigated attitudes toward, and sources of mortality of, a far-ranging apex predator, the king cobra (Ophiophagus hannah; Cantor 1836), in a biosphere reserve in northeastern Thailand. Our questionnaire revealed marked fear of snakes and hostility toward king cobras. Using radiotelemetry, we followed 23 king cobras over a 4-year period, during which time we documented the mortality of 14 individuals. We considered 10 of the deaths to be anthropogenic in origin, including road mortality, pollution, fish traps, and direct persecution; these deaths disproportionately occurred in unprotected areas. Our results highlight how dangerous human-dominated landscapes are for king cobras. Because king cobras move long distances and maintain large home ranges, it is likely that successful conservation of the species cannot be satisfactorily met by protected areas alone; a more holistic, education-focused conservation strategy is required. We stress the importance of a human dimensions approach that leads toward greater understanding of human attitudes toward king cobras, and snakes in general, combined with ecological research for more effective conservation.

The Nuclear Central American Highlands (NCAH) is a mountainous region located within a complex transition zone. Here, we analyzed the distribution patterns of 282 species of resident land birds of the NCAH. We gathered a database with records of presence of species, from which we generated realized ecological niche models using the Genetic Algorithm for Rule Set Production. These ecological niche models were used to obtain maps of each species’ potential distribution and generated species richness maps that were also compared to the map of protected areas. In addition, the maps were overlaid with a 0.25° diameter hexagonal grid to generate a presence–absence matrix to create regionalizations through (a) a Parsimony Analysis of Endemism and (b) a phenogram. Results show contrasting patterns of distribution between total species richness and endemic species richness. The regionalizations show groups influenced by slope and altitude. Species composition is mainly Mesoamerican and Neotropical species. Our results offer a new view of the regional understanding of bird diversity patterns and biogeographical processes that have shaped regional richness, like the effects of the Great American Biotic Interchange that are visible in the species composition of the NCAH. We believe that these maps of both species richness and regionalization can serve as useful tools for conservation biologists and authorities in implementing strategies for the protection of natural areas in the NCAH.