Telipogon is a Neotropical genus with approximately 200 species, the majority of which are epiphytes and are distributed in South America; Mexico is the northernmost area of distribution with only two recorded species. Here we describe a third species, Telipogon corticatus, collected in cloud forests of eastern Mexico, in Veracruz. It is a species growing solely in mossy patches in the exfoliating bark of trees of Oreomunnea Mexicana (Juglandaceae). Reddish-brown flowers, large sepals close to each other in the open flowers, two thirds of the length of the lip, elliptic petals, large auricles of column with long hairs and a wide apex, a sagittate lip separated from the column with a base with a sinus, and a curved anther are diagnostic characters for this species. The phylogenetic position of T. corticatus with Mesoamerican species was identified based on ITS and the plastid matK, atpB-rbcL DNA markers considering representative taxa in subtribe Oncidiinae to which Telipogon belongs. Telipogon corticatus, together with the Mesoamerican T. helleri and T. cobanenis, were retrieved as closely related, and associated to clades consisting of Central American species.

Reticulate evolution often leads to incongruence between nuclear and plastid phylogenies, and comparisons between them have been used as a first approximation to disentangle patterns of hybridization. Because other processes like incomplete lineage sorting and phylogenetic error also produce similar incongruence patterns, additional sources of evidence must be incorporated. Here we focus on reconstructing the phylogeny of Lachemilla (Rosaceae) using nuclear ribosomal ITS and plastid trnL-FDNAsequences, and explore widespread patterns of cytonuclear discordance in this group. Lachemilla is a highly morphologically variable group of perennial herbs and shrubs, and a nearly ubiquitous member of the diverse Neotropical high-altitude grasslands. Our analyses identified four major clades within Lachemilla that are in part congruent with previous morphological classifications of the group. Furthermore, using multiple sources of evidence, including a procrustean approach to cophylogeny estimation, coalescent-based simulations, phylogenetic networks, chromosome counts, and genome size estimations, we also revealed a large-scale pattern of incongruence between the plastid and nuclear phylogenies in Lachemilla, which is mainly the result of widespread hybridization and polyploidy.We also estimated that the origin of Lachemilla in South America (;14.5 MYA) predates the “rapid-uplift” diversification model that has been suggested for other high species-richness Andean plant clades, but following the formation of the high-elevation Andean grasslands during the last 5 MYA, a rapid accumulation of particular nested lineages has contributed to the ubiquitous presence of Lachemilla in these biomes.

Stenodraba (Brassicaceae) included a group of eight species distributed along the Andes of South-Central Argentina and Chile. All of its species are currently treated in Pennellia (Tribe Halimolobeae) and Weberbauera (Tribe Thelypodieae). However, the phylogeny of Stenodraba and its tribal placement were never analyzed usingmolecular data. The lack of such studies, as well as the paucity of herbarium collections suggesting that some species are vulnerable and/or endangered, prompted us to address the molecular phylogeny of Stenodraba. For this purpose, we generated comprehensive molecular phylogenies using nuclear (ITS) and plastid (trnL-F and trnH-psbA) data and conducted different niche comparisons in the environmental and geographic spaces using climate data processed both by ordination and species distribution modelling (SDM) techniques. Results from phylogenetic analyses demonstrated that Stenodraba belongs to the South American tribe Eudemeae and is related to the genera Aschersoniodoxa, Brayopsis, Dactylocardamum, and Eudema. Stenodraba species formed two strongly supported clades, and although molecular data did not recover monophyly of the genus, this hypothesis could not be rejected with our data. The main clades were differentiated in their climatic niches (both in the environmental and geographical spaces), and niche overlap was greater within than between clades. Systematic implications, including a key distinguishing Stenodraba from the remaining genera of Eudemeae and a synopsis of its species, are also provided. The new combination S. lagunae is proposed.

Cryptantha, an herbaceous plant genus of the Boraginaceae, subtribe Amsinckiinae, has an American amphitropical disjunct distribution, found in western North America and western South America, but not in the intervening tropics. In a previous study, Cryptantha was found to be polyphyletic and was split into five genera, including a weakly supported, potentially non-monophyletic Cryptantha s. s. In this and subsequent studies of the Amsinckiinae, interrelationshipswithin Cryptantha were generally not strongly supported and sample size was generally low. Here we analyze a greatly increased sampling of Cryptantha taxa using high-throughput, genome skimming data, in which we obtained the complete ribosomal cistron, the nearly complete chloroplast genome, and twenty-three mitochondrial genes. Our analyses have allowed for inference of clades within this complex with strong support. The occurrence of a non-monophyletic Cryptantha is confirmed, with three major clades obtained, termed here the Johnstonella/Albidae clade, the Maritimae clade, and a large Cryptantha core clade, each strongly supported as monophyletic. From these phylogenomic analyses, we assess the classification, character evolution, and phylogeographic history that elucidates the current amphitropical distribution of the group. Revealing the timing, direction, and number of times of dispersal between North and South America gives insight as to the origin of the great biodiversity of these regions.

Subtribe Gonolobinae of the cosmopolitan family Apocynaceae is diverse and represents the largest radiation of milkweeds in the New World (∼500 species). The largest genus, Matelea, is an amalgam that was united largely by a perceived lack of discrete morphological variation, particularly in floral structures. Using plastid and nuclear DNA sequences, we estimate a phylogeny of Gonolobinae using four chloroplast loci and three cloned nuclear regions. We investigate themonophyly of Matelea and other established and provisional genera via a series of hypothesis tests. We find variable support and considerable conflict among the gene trees. Despite this, our data confirm the paraphyly of Matelea, while Gonolobus and other segregate genera receive some support as monophyletic assemblages. We attribute conflicting signal in our data primarily to incomplete lineage sorting, a likely result of rapid radiation. Ancestral character reconstructions of growth form, fruit, and corolla morphology reveal a woody twining growth form to be plesiomorphic with one to two transitions to an herbaceous, non-twining growth form followed by one putative reversal to the woody twining growth form in the subtribe. Plesiomorphic states for fruit ornamentation and corolla shape are less clear, and these characters exhibit high levels of homoplasy. This study is one of the most comprehensive phylogenies of gonoloboid milkweeds to date and the first to sample multiple nuclear loci and include allelic data.

Molecular data confirm monophyly of the Tetramerium lineage (Acanthaceae, Justicieae), a group of nearly 200 species, ca. 75% from the New World (NW) and the remainder from Asia or Africa. Compared to our earlier work, . 50% more in-group taxa were sampled (nearly 2/3 of known taxa now sampled) and added ∼20% more sequence data. We time-calibrate the phylogeny using primary fossil evidence and the larger context of a calibrated phylogeny for Acanthaceae. Many aspects of relationship are strongly supported but uncertainty remains about a number of phylogenetically isolated taxa (e.g. African Angkalanthus, Chorisochora; NWAncistranthus) and some aspects of relationships among clades remain weakly supported. The group originated in the Old World (OW) and began diversifying about 11.5 Ma. A single dispersal event to the NW occurred about 8.3 Ma, likely from Africa to southwestern North America. Anumber ofmajor clades, particularly in the NW, are less than 5Ma old and species in many clades are substantially younger. Several NW clades, even those with < 10 species, comprise species that are markedly heterogeneous in floral traits likely reflecting selection by pollinators. Many NW genera are not monophyletic, which is not surprising given that floral traits have been relied upon taxonomically. Diversification rate analysis revealed no significant shifts resulting in a gradual increase in number of lineages with time. The Tetramerium lineage is now phylogenetically well characterized but remains enigmatic from the perspective of morphological evidence for many aspects of relationships. The lineage is usefully thought of as a ‘clade complex’: as a species complex is of morphologically confusing species, a ‘clade complex’ is of clades that are not well characterized morphologically.

The floating-leaved aquatic plant genus Nymphoides includes diploid and polyploid species that are distributed worldwide. Prior studies found widespread incongruence between nuclear and plastid phylogenies, and this has prevented the construction of a unified phylogenetic hypothesis for the genus. In order to examine whether phylogenetic incongruence resulted from ancestral polyploidization events, we obtained DNA sequence data from two nuclear loci, phytoene desaturase (PDS) and transmembrane nine (TMN1), as well as the plastid trnT—trnF region. Multiple divergent copies of the nuclear genes were recovered from several species, and species with the most divergent copies were inferred to have originated through allopolyploidization. Our data support a scenario in which three groups of species descended from allopolyploidization events: a clade of North American species (N. aquatica and N. cordata), a clade of neotropical species (N. fallax, N. grayana, and N. humboldtiana), and the Australian species N. montana. Trees constructed using novel nuclear gene data also were incongruent with previously generated nuclear and plastid data, however we were able to combine data from four independently evolving regions (PDS, TMN1, nuclear internal transcribed spacer, and plastid) to generate a single species tree that received strong support at several nodes. Sources of incongruence on the species tree involved a relatively small subset of species. Overall, the increased data from nuclear loci have dramatically improved our understanding of the Nymphoides phylogeny.

The orchid genus Palmorchis consists of 34 species distributed in Central and South America. It is one of the most poorly known genera of the Orchidaceae. With vegetative organs resembling the seedlings of palm trees and having inconspicuous flowers, its representatives have rarely drawn the attention of botanists, resulting in scarce availability of materials in herbaria for proper examination. This paper focusses on the diversity of Palmorchis species, their morphology, ecology, and distribution compiled from herbarium material, fieldwork, and literature data. The genus is divided into six informal groups. This review has resulted in the discovery of five new species (P. dressleriana, P. antioquiensis, P. schneideri, P. rubioi, P. chocoensis) that are described herein. A dichotomous key for the determination of all the species of the genus is provided. Line drawings of flower details and plant habit for all species are included.

Coccothrinax argentata (Arecaceae) occurs in southern Florida, both on the mainland and in the islands of the Florida Keys. However, the palms from the mainland and Keys display morphological differences that led taxonomists to recognize them as distinct species in the past. They are now treated as a single, polymorphic species, but the question remains: Are the morphological differences best explained by genetics or environment? In 1999, seedlings grown from seeds collected from different populations were planted in a common garden in a randomized plot design. In 2007, the first research was published comparing genetics based on ISSRs to morphological measurements. The research from 2007 showed evidence for a genetic explanation, but with poor resolution. Here, we present new genetic data using microsatellite regions (SSRs), in combination with morphological data from more mature palms. The results support the recognition of two taxa, which we propose at the rank of subspecies.

This study is a taxonomic treatment of Mimosa from the state of Rio de Janeiro, a significant region of the Atlantic Domain in southeastern Brazil. We recognize 36 species (38 taxa), corresponding to 31% of the Mimosa species listed for the domain. A total of 816 specimens were analyzed, and around 40% of the studied taxa are endemic to the Atlantic Domain. Dense ombrophilous forests, seasonal semideciduous forests, plus secondary vegetation types have the highest species richness, despite the genus being found in all vegetation types in the state. Five species are endangered in Brazil. An identification key, morphological descriptions and comments, a table summarizing vegetation data, illustrations, and geographic distributionmaps are provided. This study extends the known geographic distribution of several taxa of Mimosa, andincludesnewrecords for the study area. Additionally, we propose the synonymization of M. extensa Benth. var. annae Barneby with the typical variety.

Eriosema macrostipulatum , a noteworthy new species from Goiás State, was discovered during a taxonomic study of the genus in Brazil. It is herein described, illustrated, and has its morphological and anatomical affinities with related species presented. The geographical distribution, conservation status, and information about flowering and fruiting are provided. Additionally, a dichotomous key to the taxa of Eriosema that occur in the Chapada dos Veadeiros National Park, Alto Paraíso de Goiás municipality (Goiás State) is provided.

Harpalyce riparia is described as a new species from the campo rupestre (rocky outcrops) vegetation of the Chapada Diamantina, state of Bahia, northeastern Brazil. The new species is morphologically similar to H. brasiliana and H. parvifolia, but it differs from the former mainly by the shorter 2–3 cm long inflorescence, smaller 1.2–1.5 cm long flowers, and fewer-seeded fruits (6–10 seeds), and from the latter by the chartaceous texture of the much larger 1.5-4.5 × 0.7-1.5 cm leaflets and non-overlapping geographical distribution. In addition to providing a complete description, illustration, and distribution map for the new species, we also provide an identification key to all known species of Harpalyce sect. Brasilianae.

We describe and illustrate four new species of dragon's blood trees (Croton sect. Cyclostigma) from western South America. Three of the species, Croton beckii from Bolivia and Peru, C. camposii fromPeru, and C. santamartensis fromColombia, grow inmontane Andean forest,whereas C. tumbesinus occurs in dry forest of the Tumbes/Piura ecoregion of western Ecuador and Peru. The characters that place them in Croton sect. Cyclostigma include the arborescent habit, the presence of reddish to yellowish latex, an indument of stellate trichomes, conspicuous and persistent stipules, acropetiolar/basilaminar nectary glands, and terminal inflorescences with bisexual cymules at the base. These new species give additional support for the Andean region being the main center of diversity of this Neotropical Croton clade, as well as being a region whose biodiversity knowledge is still incomplete.

A taxonomic history of about 200 yr has resulted in a challenging and problematic circumscription of perhaps the most elegant species of Sauvagesia (Ochnaceae) in campo rupestre vegetation of the Espinhaço Range in Brazil. This work newly describes and reestablishes two longneglected species of the Sauvagesia elegantissima species complex, Sauvagesia bryoclada and S. spicata, respectively. Morphological descriptions, illustrations, a distribution map, the conservation status, and a comparative table with the main diagnostic characters of the three species that make up the species complex are provided.

A new species of Passiflora (P. subg. Decaloba) from Colombia in the Andean region is described and illustrated in this article, using and analysis of 81 morphological descriptors. Passiflora quimbayensis is named in honor to the Pre-Columbian Quimbaya civilization which once lived in the region where the species was discovered. Its closest relative is P. magdalenae, and can be distinguished from it by its peduncle (40–55 mm), sepal (12–15 mm), and androgynophore (5–6.5 mm) lengths, by the number of laminar ocellate-nectaries (6–9, mean 7.5), biseriate corona filaments, globose ovary, and by growing under different ecological conditions (1072 to 1249 m a. s. l.). It is a new endemic species to Colombia and must be regarded as endangered because of its limited occurrence.

Five new species of Caraipa endemic to the Venezuelan Guayana are here described and illustrated. Three species are endemic to the Amazonas state: Caraipa acutata, endemic to the Guainía river; Caraipa cordifolia, endemic to the Parú tepui; and Caraipa yutajensis, endemic to the Yutaje tepui. Two species are endemic to Bolívar state: Caraipa kubitzkii was collected on a river margin in uplands; and Caraipa nigrolineata from the uplands. We propose two synonymizations and present an identification key for the 20 species of Caraipa from Venezuela.

In this manuscript three taxonomic changes are proposed based on multivariate and univariate analyses of morphological characters from collections of Terminalia in the Neotropics. Sixty-six morphological characters were examined from Terminalia reitzii, T. triflora, and T. uleana, of which only 12 were considered informative for morphometric evaluation and analyzed by the Kruskal-Wallis test and principal components analysis. As a result, T. reitzii and T. uleana are synonymized under T. triflora, and we propose a new circumscription for T. sect. Diptera. In addition, morphological, distribution and conservation aspects of T. triflora are discussed. A key to the South American species of T. sect. Diptera is presented.

Melastoma dendrisetosum is an extremely narrowly distributed taxon endemic to the Diaoluo Mountain region in Hainan, China, and was recently taxonomically incorporated under a widespread species, M. sanguineum. Based on its distinct morphological traits, especially the indumentumon the hypanthium, we propose that it should represent a distinct species. In this study,we sequenced six partial nuclear genes and two chloroplast intergenic spacers of M. dendrisetosum and three other morphologically similar species, M. sanguineum, M. penicillatum, and M. normale, to clarify its taxonomic status. M. dendrisetosum exhibited an extremely low level of genetic diversity, and was well separated from the three other species with no shared haplotypes at all six nuclear genes, supporting the hypothesis that it is a distinct species. This finding was also supported by the Bayesian clustering-based STRUCTURE analysis, phylogenetic analysis, and Bayesian species delimitation analysis. We further propose that if a formal assessment were performed, M. dendrisetosum would be categorized as ‘Critically Endangered’ under the IUCN criteria, due to its extremely small population and declining habitat quality. We suggest that the conservation of M. dendrisetosum be prioritized, and road construction in its range should be avoided, to protect this distinct and critically endangered species.

Species delimitation in recent radiations is challenging because these species often display overlap in their expression of morphological characters. Here we analyze morphological characters measured from field-collected herbarium specimens and compare them to measurements from live plants grown in a common garden to determine reliable characters that could be used to delimit species in the Myosotis pygmaea (Boraginaceae) species group in New Zealand. This species complex is of primary interest because it includes many threatened species as well as several taxonomically indeterminate entities. The common garden experiment revealed high levels of morphological plasticity within the M. pygmaea species group, as plants in the common garden grew to be strikingly larger than those in the field. The M. pygmaea species complex was found to be a morphologically definable group, and several taxonomically indeterminate entities were placed as being either morphologically similar to the M. pygmaea species group or to other species complexes. In multidimensional scaling analyses of morphological data, of the five named species that make up the M. pygmaea species group, three formed separate clusters (M. pygmaea, M. glauca, and M. brevis), and the two others were indistinguishable from each other (M. antarctica and M. drucei). This study represents an important step towards a planned integrative taxonomic revision of the M. pygmaea species group, and highlights the value of morphological data collected from a common garden experiment.

Rungia flaviflora (Acanthaceae), a new species from Southeast Yunnan, China, is described and illustrated. The new species resembles R. burmanica in shape and texture of leaf, as well as bract and corolla shape, but differs in its growth habit, plant size, cystolith shape, spike length, bract margin, and corolla colour. Among known taxa in the genus, this species is also distinctive in having tricolporate pollen grains and a chromosome number of 22. Information on pollen morphology, chromosome number, and karyotype is given, and a line drawing, color plate, and distribution map of the new species are also provided. This new species was previously misidentified as R. monetaria, which is restricted to Vietnam and does not occur in China.

Dasyphyllum sect. Macrocephala is restricted to the Cerrado, Caatinga, and Atlantic Forest biomes of Brazil, spreading into similar areas in Bolivia and Paraguay. The six recognized species in this section are monoecious shrubs with erect or decumbent branches, single or paired, rarely fasciculate, straight or curved axillary spines, leaves with apiculate or aristate apices, 5–7 basally or suprabasally acrodromous veins, sessile capitula, usually solitary or in groups of two to four, a campanulate or infundibuliform involucre generally longer than 20 mm, and with hermaphroditic florets usually with liguliform corollas and externally sericeous lobes. An identification key, descriptions, comments regarding morphology and taxonomy, maps showing geographical distribution, and illustrations are presented, together with 17 new synonyms and 18 typifications.

Faberia pinnatifida (Asteraceae; Cichorieae), a species occurring at high altitudes in Muli and Yanyuan Xian, Sichuan, China, is described as new based on morphological, palynological, andmolecular phylogenetic data. The ITS data indicate that F. pinnatifida is closely related to F. glaucescens and F. thibetica, but it is easily distinguished from F. glaucescens by its scapigerous stem with only one or two leaves, and from F. thibetica in its much taller stature and elliptic to oblanceolate leaf blade. Faberia pinnatifida somewhat resembles F. ceterach in the scapigerous stem and pinnatifid leaves, but readily differs in its corymbiform synflorescence and nodding capitula bearing ca. 30 florets.

An account of the nine species of Pseudognaphalium occurring in Peru is provided, i.e. P. cheiranthifolium, P. dysodes, P. elegans, P. gaudichaudianum, P. lacteum, P. lanuginosum, P. luteoalbum, P. psilophyllum, and P. viravira. A number of species are placed in synonymy: Gnaphalium ecuadorense, G. ecuadorense var. boliviense, andPseudognaphalium pellitum are synonymized under P. cheiranthifolium; Gnaphalium imbaburense, G. jelskii, G. peruvianum, G. sodiroi, and Pseudognaphalium cabrerae are synonymized under P. gaudichaudianum; Gnaphalium humillimum and Pseudognaphalium dombeyanum are synonymized under P. dysodes; Gnaphalium helichrysoides and Pseudognaphalium melanosphaeroides are synonymized under P. lanuginosum; and Gnaphalium polium is synonymized under Pseudognaphalium viravira. Lectotypes are designated for Gnaphalium dombeyanum, G. elegans, G. gaudichaudianum, G. gaudichaudianum var. subrufescens, G. helichrysoides, G. jelskii, G. luteoalbum var. pallidum, G. multiceps, G. poeppigianum, and G. sodiroi. Descriptions, notes on habitat and phenology, distribution maps, full specimen citations for all taxa treated, an identification key, as well as line drawings of four of the nine species, are provided.

Leiboldiinae is one of the 24 subtribes of Vernonieae. It is composed of four genera, three of which are endemic to Mexico. The 14 recognized species and are distributed in mountainous regions of Mexico and Central America. A phylogenetic analysis was performed to infer the relationships among members of the subtribe. As part of this analysis, 73 morphological, anatomical, palynological characters, as well as chromosome number, were analyzed. The results indicate that the subtribe Leiboldiinae is a monophyletic group. It is distinguished by two synapomorphies: pappus arranged outside the apical callus of the cypsela and the presence of glands with five to seven basal cells on the corolla. Bolanosa is differentiated from the other genera by the presence of paleae on the receptacle, 8–10 ribbed cypselae with a sericeous indumentumand persistent pappus. Leiboldia has glands on the cypsela above the carpopodium; Lepidonia has phyllaries with the apex broadly ovate-apiculate, and Stramentopappus is distinguished by the obovate cypsela and 3-seriate pappus. The taxonomical treatment includes updated descriptions for each taxon and identification keys for genera and species, as well as geographic distribution and phenological data.

A taxonomic revision of the genus Escallonia in Argentina, based on the study of herbarium specimens and field work, is presented. Descriptions, nomenclatural treatment, an identification key, and comments on habitat and distribution are given for each species. Drawings not included in previous works are published here for the first time. Also, a plastid DNA network, combining sequences from previous studies, is included. On the basis of morphology and DNA variability, we recognized 17 species of Escallonia in Argentina. Lectotypes are designated for Escallonia resinosa var. dodoneifolia, E. sellowiana, E. longidens, E. rahmeri, and Stereoxylon virgatum. Second-step lectotypifications are designated for Escallonia bifida, E. vaccinioides, E. vaccinioides var. guaranitica, E. spiraeoides, E. adscendens, E. rosea, E. duplicatoserrata, E. tucumanensis, and Stereoxylon corymbosum. Inadvertent lectotypifications were corrected for Escallonia alpina var. glaberrima, E. bellidifolia, E. vaccinioides, E. vaccinioides var. guaranitica, E. spiraeoides, E. adscendens, E. tucumanensis, and Stereoxylon corymbosum. A new synonym (E. rubra var. dumetorum under E. rubra) is proposed.