Crustose, asexually reproducing taxa represent a large component of lichen biodiversity that is often overlooked and underestimated; as a result, remarkable potential remains for discovery of new species in this neglected, polyphyletic group. For this study, ITS and mtSSU rDNA sequences were analyzed in conjunction with chemical and anatomical data to understand the systematic placement of an enigmatic, sterile lichen. This species, despite references in the literature, and being known for over half a decade, has remained undescribed due to our inability to integrate it into a higher-level taxonomic framework using morphology alone. Here we demonstrate the utility of a systematic methodology that combines molecular and non-molecular characters to place and circumscribe species of asexually reproducing lichens that are typically sterile. Based on our analyses, the new species, Caloplaca reptans, shows phylogenetic and morphological affinities to a broad group of Caloplaca species with gray thalli, including the type species of the genus, C. cerina. This study highlights that the family Teloschistaceae is morphologically more diverse than previously understood, and contains elements that cannot easily be placed in known ‘species groups.’

Ongoing molecular phylogenetic studies of cheilanthoid ferns confirm that the genus Cheilanthes (Pteridaceae) is polyphyletic. A monophyletic group of species within the hemionitid clade informally called the “C. marginata group” is here shown to be distinct from its closest relatives (the genus Aspidotis) and phylogenetically distant from the type species of Cheilanthes. This group is here segregated from Cheilanthes as the newly described genus, Gaga. In this study, we use molecular data from four DNA regions (plastid: matK, rbcL, trnG-R; and nuclear: gapCp) together with spore data to circumscribe the morphological and geographical boundaries of the new genus and investigate reticulate evolution within the group. Gaga is distinguished from Aspidotis by its rounded to attenuate (vs. mucronate) segment apices, minutely bullate margins of mature leaves (vs. smooth at 40 ×), and less prominently lustrous and striate adaxial blade surfaces. The new genus is distinguished from Cheilanthes s. s. by its strongly differentiated, inframarginal pseudoindusia, the production of 64 small or 32 large spores (vs. 32 small or 16 large) per sporangium, and usually glabrous leaf blades. A total of nineteen species are recognized within Gaga; seventeen new combinations are made, and two new species, Gaga germanotta and Gaga monstraparva, are described.

We studied leaf cuticles of 48 species of Beilschmiedia, Endiandra, Potameia, Sinopora, and Syndiclis from eastern Asia and Madagascar using light microscopy and scanning electron microscopy. This study shows that leaf cuticles of Lauraceae possess characters useful in taxonomy, including the ornamentation of periclinal walls, straightness and uniformity of thickness of anticlinal walls, stomatal ledges, and surface of the stomatal complex. The stomatal ledges and the surface of the stomatal complex are valuable in supraspecific grouping while ornamentation of periclinal walls, thickness and straightness of anticlinal walls, and presence/absence of round oil deposits are applicable to species identification. Leaf cuticular features together with veinlet anatomy and macromorphology (e.g. terminal buds) were tentatively applied to classify the Asiatic Beilschmiedia group. Five groups are recognized, namely the Beilschmiedia delicata group, the B. glauca group, the B. intermedia group, the Endiandra group, and the Syndiclis group, each of which shares a suit of cuticular characters. Syndiclis (at least the Chinese species) consists of closely related species with a common origin and has not been derived several times independently from Beilschmiedia. Venation type and cuticular characters support a close relationship between Sinopora and Syndiclis. Sinopora hongkongensis is close to Syndiclis pingbienensis.

A new Thismiaceae species, Thismia prataensis, from the Brazilian Atlantic Rain Forest is described and illustrated. This species was found growing in the “Serra da Prata” mountain range, Morretes, Paraná State, southeastern Brazil, and is distinguished from the other species in the genus by the presence of six bracts in two whorls, free interstaminal lobes, six depressions that surround the throat, double longitudinal lamellae on the outside of the floral tube and stigma with papillose surface. This is the most southerly record for the group in the Neotropical region. A key of the Thismia species inhabiting the Atlantic Rain Forest is also provided.

A new orchid species, Tetramicra riparia is described from eastern Cuba. The new taxon has intermediate traits between the two subgenera of Tetramicra currently accepted. In fact, the most useful feature to distinguish T. riparia from its congeneric species (the combination of a repent growing habit with a completely entire labellum) is also the main morphological obstacle for classifying it at a subgeneric level. Nevertheless, the classification of the new species in Tetramicra subgenus Tetramicra is supported by the phylogenetic relationships found for a subset of Broughtonia alliance species. In addition, the ecology and conservation status of the new orchid species is discussed and a key for field identification is provided.

Allium is one of the largest monocotyledonous genera. Southwest to Central Asia is the major center of diversity for the genus. In the present study, seeds of 62 Allium taxa from Turkey classified in subg. Allium (sect. Allium, sect. Brevispatha, sect. Codonoprasum and sect. Multicaule), subg. Amerallium (sect. Molium), subg. Melanocommyum (sect. Acanthoprason and sect. Melanocrommyum), and subg. Polyprason (sect. Falcatifolia and sect. Scorodon) were examined using light and scanning electron microscopy to evaluate the taxonomic relevance of macro- and micro-morphological seed characters. As a result of the study, species-specific and section-specific characters have been determined. Seeds exhibit variation in size and shape of testa cells, shape and sculpturing of periclinal walls, as well as position, shape and undulation type of anticlinal walls. Seeds ranged from 1.57–5.10 mm in length and 0.81–4.05 mm in width. Six different ovate seed shapes were recognized with a length to width ratio ranging from 1.30 ± 0.09–2.64 ± 0.41. Shape of testa cells, shape, and sculpturing of periclinal walls, and position, shape, and undulation type of anticlinal walls were found to be important diagnostic characters. Seed coat patterns appear to mark different evolutionary levels inside of many taxonomic groups and variation of the testa characters is sufficient to distinguish taxa at sectional level. However, seed coat patterns do not directly indicate basal or advance evolutionary levels.

Carex subg. Vignea is a distinctive taxon characterized by sessile, bisexual inflorescence units, distigmatic flowers, and the lack of cladoprophylls. Evolutionary relationships within this subgenus were examined using amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP) data alone and in combination with nrDNA ILS and ETS 1f (external transcribed spacer 1 fragment) sequences. Parsimony and Bayesian analyses of the combined dataset show the atypical C. gibba (tristigmatic flowers, cladoprophylls) to be sister to the remainder of subg. Vignea. All gynaecandrous sections are monophyletic, with gynaecandry having arisen multiple times. In contrast, androgynous sections are largely polyphyletic, with most clades comprised of disparate assemblages of taxa that are often difficult to correlate with morphology or geography. Bootstrap values/posterior probabilities support terminal and early diverging clades, but support along the backbone of all trees is poor. Trees produced using Bayesian methods have a greater number of supported branches than those produced by parsimony, suggesting that the high levels of homoplasy observed within the combined dataset may be better addressed by a model-based method. Bayesian analysis of the AFLP data alone results in trees that are topologically similar to those produced by a Bayesian analysis of the combined data. Parsimony trees generated using AFLP data alone are topologically different from other phylogenetic reconstructions. In groups such as subg. Vignea, which may be recently evolved, AFLPs provide a rich source of highly variable characters that give good support for terminal clades. However, high rates of homoplasy will likely limit their application in higher-level phylogenetic studies in Carex.

Carex vizarronensis, a new species from Cadereyta de Montes in the Mexican state of Queretaro, is described and illustrated. The new species is distinguished from C. schiedeana by its densely papillose culms, leaves and inflorescence bracts, and, perigynia with a corky stipe.

Carex paracheniana, a new species of Cyperaceae from China, is described and illustrated. The new species is recognized as a member of Carex sect. Rhomboidales in having broadly ovoid perigynia and rhombic-ovoid nutlets. It is similar to C. cheniana and C. brevicuspis, but differs from the former in having narrower leaves 3–5 mm wide, staminate scales that are obtuse at the apex, and nutlets abruptly contracted into a ca. 1 mm long, slightly curved beak at the apex. It differs from C. brevicuspis in having ovate-elliptic pistillate scales that are glaucous or pale yellow and long-awned at the apex, and styles that are thickened at the base. Micromorphological characters of the leaf epidermis, perigynia, and nutlets are compared among taxa.

A new species of woody bamboo (Poaceae: Bambusoideae), from Rio Doce State Park, Minas Gerais, Brazil, Merostachys tatianae is here described and illustrated. In its vegetative state the new species can be distinguished from all the known species in the genus by the longest internodes so far recorded for the genus (37–108 cm long) as well as by the huge culm-leaves (38–63.5 cm long). Both, the internodes and the culm-leaves are hispid, covered by irritating trichomes.

Phylogenetic relationships of 34 species and 11 out of 14 Vitaceae genera, were evaluated using parsimony and Bayesian analyses of four plastid DNA sequence regions (trnL intron, trnL-trnF spacer, atpB-rbcL spacer, and rps16 intron). Vitaceae were shown to be monophyletic and at infrafamilial level, well-supported groups included a Cayratia-Cyphostemma-Tetrastigma clade, an Ampelopsis-Cissus striata-Rhoicissus clade, and a Nothocissus-Pterisanthes clade. However, the relationships among the remaining genera remained unresolved. Cyphostemma, Tetrastigma, and Vitis were clearly monophyletic, while both Ampelopsis and Cayratia were paraphyletic and Cissus was polyphyletic. Parsimony based studies of character evolution suggested that 5-merous flowers, leaf-opposed inflorescences, and a hermaphroditic sexuality are ancestral character states in the family.

The rate and direction of biotic exchange between the Palaeotropical arid floras of Asia, Africa, and Australia is poorly understood because of a lack of phylogenetic hypotheses for relevant plant groups. Periodic aridification may have facilitated migrations of arid-adapted plants between southwestern Africa and the Horn of Africa as recently as the last glacial maximum, allowing further exchange with the arid floras of Asia. However, no conclusive evidence of the age and direction of such migrations have been documented. We use a molecular phylogeny of the Zygophylloideae to infer a biogeographic scenario for the arid Palaeotropics, using relaxed clock dating and likelihood and parsimony based ancestral area reconstruction methods. We infer up to five migrations across the African continent (in contrast to just one each to Australia and Asia from Africa). The three most recent were in the Pliocene/Pleistocene and from southern to northern Africa, while the oldest dates to the Oligoccene to Miocene. For the recruitment of the arid Palaeotropical flora, the preponderance of migrations across the African continent points to a repeated pattern of dispersal mediated by periodically more contiguous habitat, the so called ‘African arid corridor,’ with rarer long distance dispersal events between other disjunct areas.

Euphorbia section Poinsettia contains approximately 25 species native to the Americas. This taxon is sometimes treated as an independent genus or as a subgenus of Euphorbia, but it is currently placed within the recently recircumscribed subgenus Chamaesyce. Four species of Poinsettia have been previously reported from Bolivia, and a fifth species, Euphorbia mayfieldii, is herein described. This new species is a narrow endemic currently known from three collections made in the department of Santa Cruz, where it occurs on grassy cliff faces in tropical forest at elevations from 645–700 m. Flowering occurs at least from July to September. It is probably an attractive and conspicuous plant by virtue of the white pigmentation of the subcyathial leaves. Euphorbia mayfieldii is distinctive due to the combination of glabrous stems and leaves, in addition to cauline leaves that are opposite to rarely in whorls of three with an unlobed and mostly entire blade. Within section Poinsettia, strictly opposite leaves are otherwise known only from Euphorbia dentata Michx. and relatives. Euphorbia mayfieldii is distinguished from these in being a glabrous perennial herb with nearly entire leaves; the others are pubescent annuals with coarsely dentate or serrate leaves. A dichotomous key is provided to separate the Bolivian members of section Poinsettia.

Rinorea is the second most species-rich genus in the Violaceae and has a pantropical distribution. In this study we investigated relationships among species of Rinorea and tested the monophyly of newly revised infrageneric groupings of African and Malagasy species. Phylogenetic inference was based on maximum parsimony, maximum likelihood, and Bayesian analyses of plastid trnL/trnL—F and trnD—trnE regions. Results showed the divergent Neotropical Rinorea ‘Apiculata’ group to be a strongly supported clade which was consistently resolved outside of the Rinorea s.S. clade. The Rinorea s.S. clade was strongly supported and was comprised of Neotropical and Old World clades. The Old World clade was strongly supported and contained 11 clades that corresponded to newly revised infrageneric groupings of African and Malagasy species. An additional Old World clade was recovered which contained all Asian species sampled in the study and was resolved as sister to the Malagasy endemic Rinorea subsect. Verticillatae. Maximum parsimony analysis recovered two Neotropical clades, while maximum likelihood and Bayesian analyses recovered a weakly supported monophyletic Neotropical clade. This study represents the first estimation of the phylogeny of Rinorea with sampling across its distribution and breadth of morphological diversity. The results presented here have implications for generic limits in Rinorea, infrageneric taxonomy of the African and Malagasy species, and biogeography of Rinorea in Madagascar.

During the preparation of a monographic treatment for a group of Miconia from the Atlantic Forest, Brazil, a new species was detected and is presented here. Miconia ruschiana can be recognized among other species of Miconia sect. Glossocentrum by the terete branches, shortly plinerved leaves abaxially covered by non-lepidote stellate trichomes, panicles with glomerulate ending branches, large flowers with the calyx bearing long, caducous, external lobes, and ovaries that are densely covered by trichomes at the apex. The new species is known from the mountains of the state of Espírito Santo in eastearn Brazil.

Spirotheca elegans, a new species of Malvaceae subfamily Bombacoideae from the state of Bahia, Brazil, is described and illustrated. It is considered to be endemic to an area of Caatinga vegetation bordering the Chapada Diamantina mountain range, in the central region of the state. Notes on its distribution, ecology, phenology, and comments on its conservation status are given. Furthermore, a discussion of the relationship of the new taxon to other species of Spirotheca and an updated key are provided.

Most Cactaceae have succulent stems and inhabit dry or arid areas, but some are epiphytes of humid regions. Rhipsalis is the largest genus of epiphytic cacti. Species of Rhipsalis are notoriously difficult to identify, and the subgeneric classification of the genus has remained controversial. Between 1837 and 1995, eight different subgeneric classifications have been proposed for Rhipsalis. The most comprehensive taxonomic treatment of the genus recognized five subgenera, Phyllarthrorhipsalis, Rhipsalis, Epallagogonium, Calamorhipsalis, and Erythrorhipsalis, characterized mainly by stem morphology. Here, molecular phylogenetic information combined with morphological data is used to re-evaluate the former subgeneric classifications proposed for the genus. Three monophyletic subgenera are recognized, Rhipsalis, Calamorhipsalis and Erythrorhipsalis, which are mainly characterized by floral traits. The changes proposed include expanding the circumscription of Rhipsalis by the inclusion of species previously included in Phyllarthrorhipsalis and Epallagogonium and recognizing a broader Calamorhipsalis, also including species from subgenus Epallagogonium. The circumscription of Erythrorhipsalis remains unchanged. For each subgenus a list of synonyms, a brief description and a list of species included are presented. A key for the identification of subgenera is also provided.

A new species from Venezuela, Matelea gilbertoana (Apocynaceae, Asclepiadoideae, Gonolobinae), is described and illustrated. The species has affinities to the ocellate complex in Matelea s. 1., but is easily distinguished by its involute corolla lobes. A key to identify the continental species of the ocellate complex is provided.

A new species from Venezuela, Matelea sanojana (Apocynaceae, Asclepiadoideae, Gonolobinae), is described and illustrated. The species has affinities to the M. squiresii complex in Matelea s. l., but is easily distinguished by its lanceolate leaves and densely pubescentringed gynostegium. The new species is currently only known from Município Caroni, Estado Bolivar. A key and illustrations to identify the pubescent-flowered members of the complex are provided.

Resolving phylogenetic relationships within the economically important genus Coffea (Rubiaceae) has proven to be difficult due to low levels of plastid and nuclear ITS sequence divergence. The recent identification of a large number of conserved, single-copy, putatively orthologous genes (COSII) provides a unique opportunity to apply regions of the nuclear genome to phylogenetic studies of Euasterid species. We expand a previously published plastid data set of Coffea with the addition of three new plastid regions and a single COSII nuclear locus. Significant phylogenetic incongruence is identified between the plastid and nuclear COSII data sets, and a combined analysis is performed after removal of incongruent taxa. Phylogenetic results from plastid, nuclear, and combined plastid/nuclear data sets allow the novel identification of early diverging lineages in Coffea. Specifically, the data show that a group of predominately Lower-Guinea/Congolian Coffea species form a clade that is sister to the rest of the genus, and that the dry adapted baracoffea alliance from western Madagascar falls outside of previously defined East Africa/Indian Ocean and Indian Ocean clades. Well-supported patterns of phylogenetic incongruence are observed between plastid and nuclear data in several species, suggesting a potential role for hybridization in their evolutionary history. The results also provide further evidence for the paraphyly of African Coffea and support the supposition that the evolutionary history of the genus is more complicated than previously proposed.

During a taxonomic review of the Neotropical genus Herpetacanthus (Acanthaceae) we found eight new species from the Atlantic Forest and one from a neighboring deciduous forest in Brazil: H. angustatus, H. chalarostachyus, H. delicatus, H. longipetiolatus, H. neesianus, H. parvispica, H. pauciflorus, H. strongyloides, and H. magnobracteolatus, which are here described and illustrated. Geographical distribution for each species is provided, as well as a key to all Atlantic forest species of Herpetacanthus.

Recent fieldwork in Namibia has led to the discovery of two undescribed species of Ruellia, Ruellia acetabula and Ruellia kaokoana. These taxa are described and illustrated. Additionally, new lectotypifications are proposed for Ruellia marlothii and Ruellia diversifolia. Some specimens previously identified as Ruellia diversifolia are ascribed to the two new species. A revised checklist and a key to distinguish the nine species of Ruellia native to Namibia plus the Angolan R. diversifolia are provided.

Microtoena affinis is recognized as a distinct species by some taxonomists, whereas others consider it to be closely related to Microtoena delavayi or a form of the latter. No agreement has been reached, and thus the identity of Microtoena affinis and the relationship between the two taxa is unclear. Based on an examination of a large number of herbarium specimens, field observations, scanning electron microscope observations, and statistical analyses of all relevant characters, the name Microtoena affinis is here reduced to a synonym ofMicrotoena delavayi.

Markea atlantica (Juanulloeae, Solanaceae), an endemic species of the Brazilian Atlantic Rain Forest, is described and illustrated. It is characterized by its hemiepiphytic habit with stems climbing by adventitious roots, few flowers (1–3) arranged in subsessile and condensed cymes, bell-shaped yellow-greenish corollas with purple stripes in the inner surface, and stamens reaching the upper part of the corolla tube. The geographic distribution of the new species is also distinctive. While the other species of the genus are mainly found in the equatorial Amazonian region, M. atlantica is restricted to the coastal Atlantic forests of Brazil. Such a disjunction seems to reflect past connections between Amazonian and Brazilian Atlantic forests. A key for the Brazilian species of Markea is presented.