Species distribution patterns result from the combination of multiple factors acting over different spatial and temporal scales. We analyze the distribution patterns of anuran amphibians within the Cerrado domain of South America in a historical framework. First, we provide an updated list of species based on extensive research in zoological collections and fieldwork. We then explore patterns of endemism and the distribution of species occurring both in Cerrado and each of the adjoining domains, providing directions for future hypotheses tests. We found 209 anuran species occurring in localities within Cerrado. Among them, 150 are primarily associated with Cerrado, and 59 are typical of one of the Cerrado adjoining domains. Widespread species account for only 14% of the Cerrado typical species. Species occurring in Cerrado and one adjoining domain present a highly structured spatial pattern in which Amazonian species are restricted to the northwestern Cerrado, Atlantic species to the southeastern Cerrado, Caatinga species to the northeastern Cerrado, and Chaco species to the southwestern Cerrado. Cerrado endemics occur in most localities and in all regions, whereas narrow endemics (< 60,000 km²) are restricted to mountain ranges in central, southeastern, and southwestern Cerrado. The limited distribution of species shared with one of the four adjoining domains highlights the influence of independent species pools more associated with other domains.

The most common method for identifying individual amphibians is toe-clipping (TC), whereby captured individuals are marked by a unique combination of amputated phalanges that corresponds to a unique alphanumeric code. However, ethical and methodological objections to this method have been raised and there is broad interest in developing alternative methods. One alternative is to use photo-identification methods (PIMs) to identify individuals based on their natural markings. We tested the efficacy of TC and two PIMs — visual matching (VM) and computer-assisted matching (CAM) using the software Wild-ID — in identifying individual adults of the endangered southern red-bellied toad, Melanophryniscus cambaraensis. We collected data over 5 mo at Floresta Nacional de São Francisco de Paula, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil. All specimens were toe-clipped and photographed. The total dataset included 492 captures of 147 individuals. VM was most accurate (99.4%), followed by TC (95.3%) and CAM (90.9%); VM was significantly more accurate than TC and CAM and TC was significantly more accurate than CAM. CAM accuracy diminished as dataset size increased but was considerably faster than VM. All CAM and VM errors were false negatives but involved different images; all TC errors were cross-identifications. Given that misidentifications occurred using both PIMs and TC, our results suggest that studies that require high accuracy should employ at least two methods to allow cross-validation. The performance of each method and the impacts of different kinds and rates of error on inferences depend on the organisms, field conditions, dataset sizes, and study questions. As such, researchers must carefully evaluate the trade-offs of each method before investing significant time and resources in collecting field data.

The American bullfrog (Lithobates catesbeianus) is a native species from eastern North America that was introduced to Ecuador in 1985. We built two models in Maxent, (1) one model with native records and, (2) one model with native and invasive records, to provide an approximate map of the potential geographical distribution for this species in Ecuador. Both models showed significant differences in the prediction of suitable areas, model 2 being the most consistent in relation to occurrence records. Here, we present the invasive potential of the American bullfrog to occupy a wide variety of environments such as Amazonia, if human activities lead to an accidental or induced introduction. Furthermore, this study is the first survey about the distribution of the American bullfrog in Ecuador, thus identifying some susceptible areas where conservation efforts should be focused to prevent new settlements and uncontrolled breeding of this species.

We describe a new species of Telmatobius from cloud forests in the valley of the Río Kosñipata in the Cordillera de Paucartambo, Región de Cusco, Peru, where it inhabits roadside ditches and forest streams. The new species is among the larger Telmatobius known. It has a short rostrum and exceedingly long jaw. Males have nuptial excrescences composed of minute, closely spaced spicules. Osteologically, the new species is distinguished by unusual ossification of the endocranium. The sphenethmoid is synostotically united with the prootic and the ossification/mineralization of the dorsal neurocranial roof eliminates the parietal fontanelles, leaving only a small frontal fontanelle. Osteological comparisons are made between the new species and the 24 other species of Telmatobius for which there is information available in the literature. Preliminary evidence suggests that the suspensory apparatus of Telmatobius may have a unique combination of features distinguishing it from that of other anurans. Superficially, the new species resembles members of the Telmatobius bolivianus Group, but its phylogenetic relationships are unknown. Many anurans in the area of the type locality have experienced severe declines, and the new species, not seen since 2007, is considered as Critically Endangered.

We redescribe Proceratophrys cristiceps and describe two new allied species, constituting the northernmost record of that group for the Atlantic Forest remnants. In addition to the morphometric differences, the characteristics of size, snout shape, head width, tympanum, interocular transverse crest of tubercles, canthal crest, frontoparietal crest, outer metacarpal tubercle, webbing formulae, inner metacarpal tubercle, and blotches on venter, were used to diagnose the species. The distribution of P. cristiceps is restricted to eastern Brasil, from the state of Rio Grande do Norte to the state of Bahia, and both new species are only known from the type locality in the state of Ceará.

Herein we describe the tadpole and vocalizations of H. polytaenius (Cope, 1870) from populations of the Quadrilatáro Ferrífero highlands, state of Minas Gerais, southeastern Brazil, and compare them with other species of the H. polytaenius clade and closely related species in the H. pulchellus group. The tadpoles differ from those of other species of the H. polytaenius clade by the shape of the body and snout in dorsal view, the degree of attachment of the spiracle inner wall to the body, and the tooth row formula 2(1,2)/3(1). The major differences from the closely related species in the H. pulchellus group refer to oral disc characteristics. Two types of calls were identified for H. polytaenius: one composed by one pulsed note and the other composed by isolated notes. Nevertheless, a call composed by two pulsed notes, possibly a territorial call, was recorded once. Comparisons of our results with those previously published for H. polytaenius from Estação Biológica da Boracéia, state of São Paulo, show differences with important taxonomic implications. The main differences in vocalizations between species of the H. polytaenius clade rely on spectral parameters. The closely related species in the H. pulchellus group present calls with increase in the intensity and longer duration than H. polytaenius. Additionally, for the purpose of comparison of the vocalizations between species from the H. polytaenius clade, we analyzed a record available of the call of H. phaeopleura.

The snake Oxyrhopus clathratus, which has a restricted distribution within the Atlantic Forest Domain, exhibits great variability in color pattern, shape of the hemipenis, and scalation. The extent of variation has resulted in substantial taxonomic confusion. To date, identification and recognition are problematic, and this is reflected in the synonymy of the species. We examine the type series and specimens from throughout the species' distribution to assess intraspecific morphological variation. Morphological variability is correlated with geographical distribution and elevation. Further, we explore whether the morphological data support recognition of more than one species or not. The results suggest that O. clathratus is a single species that exhibits considerable variation in morphology, including three distinct patterns of coloration (melanistic, melanistic with inconspicuous narrow light bands, and with conspicuous dark and light bands alternating along the body) that overlap geographically. The morphology of the ornamented hemipenes varies between “T-shape” and “Y-shape” forms, which occur without any meaningful or elevational structuring. The loreals are usually absent. Based on our results we designate a lectotype for the species.

We studied the diet of the whiptail lizard Cnemidophorus ocellifer (Spix, 1825) and the relationships between predator size and prey size in a Caatinga area of northeastern Brazil. Lizards (N = 111) were collected during the day through active search. In the laboratory, we measured them and registered the number of ingested items of each prey category to Order, as well as the dimensions and frequencies of each. The main prey category in the C. ocellifer diet was insect larvae and pupae, followed by Orthoptera, Isoptera, Coleoptera and Araneae. Termites (Isoptera) were important only in numeric terms, having negligible volumetric contribution and low frequency of occurrence, an uncommon feature among whiptail lizards. The types and sizes of prey consumed by adult males and females were similar, despite sexual dimorphism in head size. Adults and juveniles ingested similar prey types, but differed in prey size. Maximum and minimum prey sizes were positively correlated with lizard body size, suggesting that in this population individuals experience an ontogenetic change in diet, eating larger prey items while growing, and at the same time excluding smaller ones.

Barycholos ternetzi is an anuran species from the Brazilian Cerrado which can be found in gallery forests and Cerrado sensu strictu. Currently, the only available information about the natural history of B. ternetzi is a previous description of its advertisement call. Herein, we studied the vocal repertoire of this species in October 2009 at Floresta Nacional de Silvânia, Goiás state, Central Brazil. We recognized four distinct vocalizations, of which the advertisement call was the most common. The aggressive call was emitted in response to a neighbor male, while the distress and fighting calls were emitted, respectively, when the male was caught or during physical interactions. We also observed that the dominant frequency was influenced by call duration and body size, while the call duration and repetition rate were influenced by air temperature. Furthermore, we observed that the chorus size influenced the repetition rate of the advertisement call of B. ternetzi.

Intraspecific morphological variation has been cited as the main difficulty in species delimitation in the Dendropsophus marmoratus species group. However, acoustic characters of the advertisement calls seem to be helpful to establish limits between species of the group. When the advertisement call of D. nahdereri was described, questions were raised as to some traits that might be shared with other members of the D. marmoratus group. Although six of the eight species recognized for the group have had their advertisement calls described, some of these require revisions due to certain inconsistencies in the original descriptions. Herein the advertisement call of D. seniculus is redescribed on the basis of analysis of 143 calls recorded from seven individuals in the Municipality of Silva Jardim, Rio de Janeiro state, Brazil. A physiologically based note definition is used owing to its advantages in recognizing primary homology. Among the novelties reported for the group are: a change in the dominant frequency within the call, the presence of more than two harmonics, and a long, frequency modulated, final pulse. The original description of the call was based on an audiospectrogram with side-bands that was mistakenly interpreted as having too many harmonics and no pulses. Acoustic differences and similarities among the species reinforce the use of this character source in the taxonomy and phylogeny of the group. Because D. seniculus is acoustically more similar to D. soaresi than to the other species in the group, the phylogenetic relevance of this similarity should be tested.

Nine species of the Neotropical boid genus Corallus are distributed from southeastern Guatemala to southeastern Brazil. Based largely on previously published papers, we accumulated 271 prey records for all species combined, and they comprised 2 frogs, 69 lizards (mostly Anolis), 1 snake, 65 birds, and 134 mammals (marsupials, rodents, bats). There is a conspicuous difference in diet between the two West Indian species (C. cookii and C. grenadensis) and species occurring on the mainland: juvenile and subadult boas from the West Indies prey almost entirely on anoles, whereas on the mainland (with the notable exceptions of C. batesii and C. caninus), those age classes prey largely on birds and bats. Four species (C. cookii, C. grenadensis, C. hortulanus, and C. ruschenbergerii) are vertebrate generalists and exhibit both active and ambush foraging modes. Adult C. batesii and C. caninus (and, perhaps, C. cropanii) are specialists on mammalian prey, may only utilize an ambush foraging mode, and were the only species for which we had at least three prey records that did not include avian prey. Although more common than the critically endangered C. cropanii, both C. annulatus and C. blombergii seem genuinely rare and it is premature to make any generalizations regarding their trophic biology.

Coleodactylus natalensis is endemic to Atlantic Forest fragments in Rio Grande do Norte state, coastal northeastern Brazil. The main fragment where the species lives is the Parque Estadual Dunas de Natal “Jornalista Luiz Maria Alves”, a Conservation Unit covered predominantly by dunes and surrounded by urban areas. Because of the vulnerability of this species and the importance of the PEDN, we studied the density, spatial distribution and habitat and microhabitat preferences of this population to provide basis for future conservation efforts. We randomly sampled ninety-six 50 m² quadrats in each of the four habitats identified in the study area, finding a mean density of 98.5 ± 75.5 lizards per ha^-1, with grouped distribution in the forested habitats and random in others. The species preferentially inhabits the leaf litter of forest habitats at lower elevations, in wetter places and milder temperatures than the mean of our study area. Due to the relatively small density when compared to other Sphaerodactylidae, restricted distribution to forested habitats, and the urban expansion that puts the northeastern Atlantic Forest at constant risk, it is imperative to take conservation measures for this population of C. natalensis.