Lions (Panthera leo) that kill livestock around the Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park have been persecuted for decades. The impact of this on the population ecology and long-term survival probability of this population has been unknown. This was largely due to a lack of basic population information. The results of a three-year intensive study from 1998 to 2001 into the population characteristics of Kgalagadi lions are presented. Kgalagadi lions exhibit similar population characteristics to most other lion populations and show little to no effect of anthropogenic mortality. Differences from other populations include exceptionally large home ranges (1462 ± 388 km²), which are however related to prey biomass. The adult sex ratio was more biased towards females than is typical, which is possibly a product of both ecological and anthropogenic influences. Cub survival is related to rainfall conditions and the number of adult lionesses in groups with cubs, but not to the number of adult males defending each pride. Owing to low prey abundance prides form stable subgroups typically containing two adult lionesses for long periods once cubs have reached one year of age. Kgalagadi lions show similar dispersal patterns to other lion populations with resident prey. Subadults in boundary prides suffer high mortality levels in response to livestock depredation. Males are more likely to become habitual livestock raiders, which ultimately leads to them being killed.

The rehabilitation of orphaned animals is commonly practiced but rarely scientifically documented. The behavioural development before release (e.g. regarding hunting skills) is particularly important for ensuring animals are self-sustaining after release. We document the rehabilitation and release of three confiscated cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus) cubs and one leopard (Panthera pardus) cub, which were taken from the wild in Botswana. The animals were raised with minimal human contact and the development of their hunting skills was observed and assisted by limited pre-release training. After release, all animals were monitored and data showed they successfully hunted, with behavioural patterns similar to wild conspecifics. All established stable home ranges at the release site. Home ranges of the cheetahs ranged from 44 to 121 km², travelling primarily during the early morning and evening, ranging from 4.5 to 9.4 km/day. While the leopard survived and probably reproduced within a stable home range (449 km²), all three cheetahs were shot within 7 months of release. Therefore, although orphaned large felids can successfully hunt after release using appropriate rehabilitation techniques, they face the same human—carnivore conflicts of their wild counterparts. Our study demonstrates the indispensable but commonly neglected need for post-release monitoring in wildlife rehabilitation.

In this paper we analyse the daytime movements of African elephants (Loxodonta africana) in different habitats in the Pongola Game Reserve, South Africa. On average adult males moved faster than females in all habitat types except when grouped together (then females moved at the faster male pace). Elephants demonstrated distinct movement patterns in different habitat types. All the movement parameters indicate that the elephants turned less the further they were from a large permanent body of water (Jozini Dam) and for males with increasing distance to the females. Male and female elephants turned more in habitat types that had favourable resources such as forage and shade, than they did in unfavourable habitats. Thus, the elephants used a direct movement strategy — turning less — when needing to get to a destination more quickly (e.g. toward water or mates), rather than significantly increasing their speed. It is hypothesized that these elephants are optimizing energy efficiency while still varying their foraging approach and search intensity. Patterns of movement through a habitat will affect ecological impacts in that habitat and so habitat-related movement pattern studies of this type could assist landscape planning (e.g. waterhole design and distribution) and large herbivore conservation.

A common population estimation method for cryptic species — dung-heap counts — is reliant on accurate defecation rate data. Diet quality, dominance level, and animal condition have been suggested to affect antelope defecation rate. We investigated the effects of sex and forage quality on defecation rate and faecal output in the common duiker (Sylvicapra grimmia Linnaeus, 1758), a territorial species with limited sexual size dimorphism. Using a repeated measures design, ten semi-captive individuals of both sexes and two age classes were fed two diets differing in fibre content in two seasons. Dry matter intake and faecal output were measured over ten days on each diet. Neither diet quality nor fibre content significantly affected defecation rate or the dry matter of egesta, despite greater intake on a low-fibre diet. Daily dry matter intake and egestion did not differ significantly between sexes, but younger animals produced more faecal matter. Males defecated more frequently (5.2 ± 0.2 piles/day) than females (3.1 ± 0.1 piles/day). Prime males had the highest defecation rate and produced smaller dung piles than other categories. A significant inverse relationship between defecation rate and faecal pile mass was detected, and we suggest that territorial male common duikers control faecal output to maximize scent-mark distribution.

In recent years, South African conservation officials have noted the appearance of sarcoid tumour-like growths in Cape mountain zebra (Equus zebra zebra) populations. In domestic horses (Equus ferus caballus), a genetic predisposition for this bovine papillomavirusinduced tumour is reported. This investigation compared population genetic parameters within tumour-affected populations in Bontebok National Park and Gariep Dam Nature Reserve against Cape mountain zebra populations having few or no tumours in Karoo National Park and Karoo Nature Reserve in South Africa and Hartmann's mountain zebra populations from Namibia. Tumour-affected populations had the lowest levels of expected heterozygosity, gene diversity and polymorphism and highest values of internal relatedness and homozygosity by loci but not reaching levels of significance (P = 0.05). Wright's F_IS values indicated an overall deficit of heterozygotes in both affected and non-affected Cape mountain zebra populations. Considerable population substructuring, as indicated by FST values and Bayesian clustering, was revealed among all Cape mountain zebra populations. The results provide support for current conservation policies aimed at increasing levels of genetic diversity in isolated Cape mountain zebra populations.

Ante-mortem stress is known to adversely affect meat quality, and cropping methods that minimize stress are key to ensuring acceptable meat quality from wild ungulates. The purpose of this study was to compare the difference in meat quality between day- and nightcropped red hartebeest (Alcelaphus buselaphus). The cropping method had no significant effect on the stress parameters, the ultimate pH of the meat or any of the constants of the exponential decay model of the pH data (y=a b e^(-ct)). No significant differences were found in drip loss, cooking loss or shear force between treatments. Significant correlations were found between carcass pH_u versus drip (r = -0.322) and cooking losses (r = -0.323). A significant difference was found for a* (P= 0.048) and chroma (P= 0.032) between day and night-cropped animals. All colour ordinates, except hue angle, were found to be significantly correlated to pH_u. The results of this study indicate that if an experienced cropping team is used, neither of the two cropping methods has any adverse effect on the meat quality of red hartebeest.

The management of large ungulates in southern Africa necessitates reliable monitoring programmes to direct management action. Monitoring programmes for large ungulates typically rely on spotlight survey methods, but do not address variation in detection rates between surveys or observers. In 2009, we used a multiple observer survey technique to estimate detection probabilities for large ungulates in lowveld savanna habitats in Swaziland. Spotlight detection probabilities for all ungulates ranged between 0.22 and 0.57. Species-specific spotlight detection rates for the two most detected species, impala (Aepyceros melampus) and blue wildebeest (Connochaetes taurinus), were 0.48 and 0.61, respectively. At our open savanna study site, detection rates were higher and abundance estimates were fairly consistent. In our more enclosed savanna habitat, both detection rates and resulting abundance estimates were variable. Our results suggest that when monitoring large ungulate populations, managers should conservatively assume they are missing approximately 50% of the population available for surveying. We recommend that managers consider methods which incorporate multiple observers into survey practices and consider using multiple data sources to assist with population management decisions.

This study examined the extent to which traffic volume and road kills changed after rehabilitation of the Lusaka—Mongu highway (M9), which traverses the Kafue National Park. It also assessed the impact of the road kills on the wildlife populations in the park. The study revealed that traffic volume increased by 45% after rehabilitation of the M9 road. Consequently, sighting rates of road kills increased by >50%. The majority of the collisions occurred in the late wet season (January–March). These months coincide with dense vegetation cover and rutting season of impala (Aepyceros melampus), the species that was killed most frequently. Reduced visibility because of dense vegetation cover, and pronounced animal activity during the rut inevitably enhanced chances of wildlife colliding with vehicles. With regard to impacts of the road kills on the wildlife populations, the majority (>86%) of the animals involved in the road accidents are the young and subadults. The collisions, therefore, are affecting the reproductive potential of the species affected. To mitigate against the wildlife-vehicle collisions, the study recommends various measures, such as slashing of verges at the appropriate time, use of speed cameras, and educational and public-awareness campaigns.

Ticks transmit a greater variety of pathogens to mammals than any other blood-sucking arthropod vector, predisposing susceptible individuals to infection with clinical symptoms. A study was conducted to determine the range of haemoparasites in ticks that can pose a health risk to susceptible animals in the Ngorongoro Crater. Questing ticks were collected randomly in crater grassland. Amblyomma tick species were collected under moribund grass cover and on hosts; one-host and two-host Rhipicephalus tick species were collected on immobilized wild animals. Pools of five ticks were prepared according to species and source and processed for nucleic acid extraction. Haemoparasite DNA was amplified by PCR for Anaplasma species (n = 118), Babesla species (n = 102) and Theileria species (n = 115). Eleven tick species were identified, eight of which were PCR positive for one or more haemoparasites. Sequence analyses for rRNA gene fragments detected Anaplasma bovis, Babesia equi, Theileria buffeli and Theileria parva. Therefore, susceptible livestock and endangered wildlife species in crater grassland are at risk of contracting related diseases.

The maintenance of genetic diversity in populations is one of the key concerns in wildlife management. Levels of genetic diversity are partly determined by the evolutionary history of a population and partly by environmental factors which affect population size, gene flow and mating systems. In this study, we used microsatellite DNA markers to assess the level of genetic diversity in a population of orange-breasted sunbirds (Anthobaphes violacea), an endemic nectarivore in the fynbos biome at Jonkershoek Nature Reserve, South Africa. We found high levels of genetic diversity in this population, with an average of 19 alleles per locus, and both expected and observed heterozygosities of 0.84. The level of genetic diversity found in this species is comparable to that of Cape sugarbirds (Promerops cafer), a fellow fynbos endemic, but higher than that reported for other species of nectarivorous birds not affected by frequent habitat fires. We suggest that the destruction of flowering plants by fires, forcing birds to disperse, may have contributed to the maintenance of high levels of genetic diversity through encouraging outbreeding in orange-breasted sunbirds and Cape sugarbirds. We also discuss the implications of our findings for management of these species.

Performance and adaptive management systems were introduced in all protected areas in Ghana to stop the decline in wildlife and the further loss of biodiversity. The competitive management system resulted in an increase in the relative abundance of wildlife at seven sites where the system had been in operation for 4 years (2004–2008). We examined the relationships between wildlife-based tourism and park management, and key factors that may influence tourism. First, we scrutinized the relationship between the relative abundance of illegal activity and numbers of visitors, the relative abundance of wildlife, and road network. Poaching declined with increasing numbers of tourists that acted as a deterrent, whereas poaching increased with a higher relative abundance of wildlife. Second, we examined the relationship between the numbers of visitors and the relative abundance of wildlife, species richness, distances from Accra, regional capitals and the nearest hotel; the road network on site, and the numbers of alternative tourist attractions. Increasing numbers of alternative tourist attractions, and shorter distances to the nearest hotel attracted higher numbers of visitors. An important additional factor that influenced the flow of tourists to protected areas was the presence of unique site attractions.

The South African game farming industry has grown exponentially since the 1960s and makes a significant contribution to South Africa's GDP. Recently, a number of challenges to the sustainability of the industry have emerged. This has led to concerns by environmental NGOs, academics and government officials about land degradation, hybridization, inbreeding, disrupted ecosystem processes, social impacts, and economic feasibility. Game farmers have raised concerns about the industry's governance, in particular the lack of consultation, inconsistent regulation, lack of capacity and leadership, and indecisiveness in government. The root of the problem lies in the incorrect and untested assumption that current science, policy and governance systems are adequate to achieve the goals of sustainability, leading to a top-down approach to regulation and the absence of adaptive management and co-learning. In this paper, we outline the ecological, social and economic benefits of sustainable game farm management. We propose an alternative approach to responsible management and better governance, based on the principles of adaptive co-management and co-regulation. We put forward a learning-and-process model starting with knowledge generation, awareness raising, knowledge sharing, learning, trust building, policy adaptation, monitoring and, ultimately, assessment and certification. The process moves from ineffective regulation to co-regulation, and the capacity to govern as well as the ecosystem's capacity to produce lasting services increases steadily as the process evolves. We suggest that the process outlined in the model should be guided by independent facilitators and culminate in a certification system for sustainably managed game farms.

We here estimate the economic impact of hunting (both biltong and trophy) on South Africa's Northern Cape province economy. This study used the input-output (social accounting matrix) and multiplier analyses to evaluate the economic impact of hunting in the regional economy of the Northern Cape province. Data on biltong hunting were derived from a national survey conducted in 2007 and data on trophy hunting were derived from the Professional Hunting Association of South Africa (PHASA). The results indicated that the direct economic impact of hunting in the Northern Cape province economy, resulting from increased expenditure, exceeded R696.1 million for 2007. This direct impact resulted in a total economic impact in the order of R774.3 million, and consequently, in a multiplier effect of 1.11. With regard to employment, it was estimated that some 9072 jobs plus those of the employees directly involved might be dependent on hunting in the province, thereby supporting the notion that this is a viable and important sector of the tourism industry.

Tagging attempts of Heaviside's dolphins (Cephalo-rhynchus heavisidii) using a remotely-deployed suction-cup tag were performed in Table Bay and St Helena Bay on the southwest coast of South Africa. The observed reactions of dolphins indicate that this tagging approach has negligible impacts on the dolphin behaviour and Heaviside's dolphins might be tagged with suction cup tags without adverse affects.