The aim of this study was to determine the traits that define the optical properties of the needles of four coniferous species: Picea abies, Picea omorika, Abies alba and Pinus sylvestris. The analysis included measurements of the needles for their morphological and anatomical aspects, reflectances at the upper and lower needle surfaces through their 280–880-nm spectra, and biochemical traits. The needles of these species differed significantly in the majority of morphological and anatomical traits, with the most pronounced differences seen for the thickness of the cuticle and epidermis, the needle width and thickness, the width of the central cylinder, and the position and density of the stomata. The reflectance spectra of the upper needle surface were very similar, while for the reflectance of the lower needle surface, P. omorika reflected light the most efficiently, followed by A. alba. The biochemical properties indicated significant differences in the amounts of UV-absorbing compounds, which were highest in P. sylvestris, and relatively low in A. alba and P. abies. The upper needle surface reflectance spectra were significantly affected by thickness of the cuticle, by pore width and by total mesophyll thickness, which explained 24%, 12% and 4% of the variability, respectively. The needle traits that explained the reflectance spectra variability of the lower needle surface were the hypoderm (28%), needle thickness (4%), density of stomata (28%), length of the outer pores (9%), and amount of UV-A-absorbing compounds (7%). Our data show that the needle reflectance spectra are primarily affected by the physical structure of the needles, and little by the needle biochemistry. This calls into question the methodologies for determination of the biochemical status of conifers based on their reflectance spectra.

Leaf functional traits are indicators of both plant community and ecosystem responses to environmental factors and can thus increase our capacity to understand ecosystem processes and community assembly due to climate change. The variation in leaf functional traits between succession stages in Horqin Sandy Land is caused by soil nutrient content and by intrinsic biological characteristic of species, but the effects are different. Leaf economic spectra were assessed for seven leaf traits of eight species from early and advanced stages of succession. Species from early succession stages are Agriophyllum squarrosum (L.) Moq., Corispermum macrocarpum Bge., Setaria viridis (L.) Beauv. and Pennisetum centrasiaticum Tzvel., and species from advanced successional stages are Chenopodium acuminatum Willd., Chloris virgate Swartz, Digitaria sanguinalis (L.) Scop. and Leymus secalinus (Georgi) Tzvel. All these species were grown in a greenhouse experiment under two contrasting nutrient supplies including high nutrient level (N , with 20 g of nutrient addition) and low nutrient level (N-, with no added nutrients). As expected, the resource uptake strategies of the species were affected by soil fertilization addition. Leaf nitrogen content (LNC), leaf phosphorus content (LPC), and photosynthetic capacity per unit leaf area (A_area) significantly increased at high nutrient level but LPC is more dramatically changed than others leaf traits. Leaf life span (LLS) and specific leaf area (SLA) did not show similar tendency with succession stage. At the same nutrient level, LES still shows different pattern between the early and the advanced succession stages. Species from early succession stages have higher LPC and A_area, compared to species from advanced stages. Species from early succession stage also tend to have higher SLA and higher LNC than at the advanced succession stage. The LLS did not show any clear changes with succession process. These results provide evidence that LES shift along the succession process is mainly caused by intrinsic biological characteristic of species.

The impact of biological invasions should be considered from ecological and economic perspective. To understand the influence of the invader, both its range and abundance should be known. Even if the range of invaders is well-known, the problem of assessing their abundance still occurs very often. In this study we report the results of an assessment of the area covered by stands of alien Solidago species in Silesia (Central Europe, south-western Poland, area ca. 30 000 km²), and estimated costs of the invaded areas recultivation. The results of field survey show that the stands of invasive Solidago species cover an area of about 130 000 hectares in S-W Poland, which is ca. 4.5% of the total area of the studied region. It was also found that the cadastral data and Corine land cover maps underestimate the area of fallowed agricultural lands. The cost of removing stands of invasive Solidago species in S-W Poland ranges from 123.24 to 266.17 million PLN, depending on the method. The method that balances reasonable costs, low environmental impact and efficiency of grassland establishment costs 180.7 million PLN for S-W Poland.

The human induced changes affect the transformation of different plant communities. In some cases this process can contribute to increase in local biodiversity, but it depends on type and manner of human activity involved. The main aim of this study is to answer the question how two anthropogenic factors (former and current) can modify the species composition in forest phytocoenoses.

The study area is situated in the southern Poland (Małopolska Upland). The studies were carried out on two former (19^th century) mining fields where planting Common Beech Fagus sylvatica (field A) and Scots Pine Pinus sylvestris (field B) have been done since the first half of the 20^th century.

On gob piles (sites transformed by former iron-ore mining), single-species beech (field A) or pine (field B) tree stands are undergoing secondary succession, and transform into multi-species, fertile deciduous forests. This secondary communities corresponding to the types of new, fertile soils (formed by clayey-loamy material of gob piles), generated as a result of mining activities. Whereas, on non-transformed areas forest communities with floristic structures and composition linked to poor and acidophilous phytocoenoses developed. These communities are also compatible with their respective, primary habitats (acid, poor, and sandy soils).

Nonetheless, the secondary succession of forest communities on gob piles can be disturbed. In the herb layer of fertile habitats of post-mining sites where Pinus sylverstis was planted (field B) acidophilous species among mesophilous forest species were noted. This process of acidification of humus layer is induced by the fall of needles of pines and it has not been observed in communities with planted Fagus sylvatica (field A).

It was found that previous mining activities now affect the secondary succession in the forest communities of northern part of the Małopolska Upland because they have created new habitats where process of forming mesophilous phytocoenoses was observed. Accordingly, former human activity leads to the increase in local biodiversity. On the other side current forest management can reduce this effect as a result of planting tree species which acidify these fertile habitats and suppressed the occurrence of mesophilous forest species, what, by contrast, decrease the species richness.

The Salix variegata Franch. seedlings planted in the Three Gorges Reservoir (TGR) water level fluctuation zone (WLFZ) could survive after experiencing several seasons of winter submergence. We investigated the recovery mechanisms of S. variegata seedlings planted at the elevation of 168 m and 172 m in the TGR WLFZ after winter submergence. The results indicated that winter submergence caused some impacts on S. variegata seedlings with increases of hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), superoxide anions radical (O₂^-.), and malondialdehyde (MDA) levels, and decreases of antioxidant enzymatic systems during recovery stage after winter submergence. However, further analyses of relative water content (RWC), pigment content, proline content, carbohydrate content and several other antioxidant enzymatic activities (catalase (CAT), guaiacol peroxidase (G-POD), and glutathione peroxidase (GSH-POD)) showed that S. variegata seedlings were well recovered after winter submergence. These results indicate that S. variegata possesses strong winter submergence tolerance and adaptation to the specific hydrological environment in the TGR WLFZ. Therefore, S. variegata should be popularized as native tree species during the revegetation in the TGR WLFZ.

The aim of this work was to analyse the response of dominant tree species to the changing climate in a subtropical evergreen broad-leaved forest in China. We investigated the main leaf phenology and herbivory parameters of four typical trees (i.e., Schima superba, Castanopsis fargesii, Castanopsis sclerophylla and Cyclobalanopsis sessilifolia) in spring from 2010 to 2014 in the Tiantong National Forest Research Station in eastern China. The results showed that the accumulated temperature was the principle factor which affected the leaf phenology and herbivory. All four trees got an earlier, shorter and more synchronised leaf expansion in years with higher accumulated temperature, and also they suffered more sever leaf damage in these years. However the trees responded differently to climate warming in leaf phenology and herbivory. The S. superba and Ca. sclerophylla were more sensitive to the varying accumulated temperature than the Ca. fargesii and Cy. sessilifolia both in leaf phenology and herbivory during leaf expansion. We suggest that the observed variations in leaf phenology and leaf traits to the changing accumulated temperature should be taken into consideration for pest management and community stability maintenance in forests adapting to the changing climate.

Temporary freshwater rock pools, as special, small-sized and isolated habitats, provide ideal systems for studying island biogeography and ecological theories and processes. In this study, a total of 70 potholes of mountain rivers were sampled during the four seasons from November 2013 to October 2014 to assess the structure of the benthic invertebrate community and to identify the relationships between habitat characteristics and the community composition. Pothole area ranged from approximately 0.01 to 0.39 m², and pothole depth ranged from 0.03 to 0.74 m. Forty-three taxa belonging to 37 families and 16 orders were collected from the potholes. The highest numbers of benthic invertebrate taxa were observed in summer and the highest average number of taxa per pothole (8.5) was observed in autumn. The diversity was the highest in spring, and the average densities of benthic invertebrates were highest in autumn. Large potholes supported more taxa than small ones and significant relationships between richness and pothole area, richness and water volume were observed. The results of Redundancy Analysis show that the community composition of benthic invertebrates in the potholes was closely correlated with water temperature, pothole area and water depth. Our results indicate that benthic invertebrate communities in river potholes are mainly structured by water depth, pothole area and water volume. The seasonal changes are also an important factor determining the presence/absence of certain taxa.

Poyang lake area (1000–3246 km²) is the most important wintering ground for the globally critically endangered Siberian crane (Leucogeranus leucogeranus). More than 98% of the Siberian crane population overwinters in Poyang lake area. Remote-sensing and the spatial analysis tools of geographic information system (GIS) technology were used to assess the suitability of the habitat for wintering Siberian cranes in Poyang lake area at different water levels. The results demonstrated that as the water level increased within the range of 7.93–12.16 m, the area of unsuitable habitat increased gradually, but the areas of good, fair and poor habitat decreased. When the water level reached 12.16 m, good habitat for Siberian cranes covered an area of only 3005 ha, which is only 0.93% of the area of the total lake area. When human disturbance factors including vehicles, fishing and construction activities were added to the analysis of the current distribution of Siberian crane habitat, the results again indicated that the area of good habitat decreased with an increase in water level within the range of 7.93–12.16 m. Additionally, the areas of good habitat occurred primarily in the region of two national nature reserves, which are the Poyang Lake National Nature Reserve and the Nanjishan National Nature Reserve. Our study provides important data and an important theoretical basis for water level management and nature reserve construction in Poyang lake area.

The study focuses on the changes of Ortolan Bunting (Emberizia hortulana L.) habitats, which occurred during the last 20 years, and the implications of these changes for the presence of the species population in south-eastern Moravia, Czech Republic. The research was based on aerial photographs and field work. We have identified habitats that were favoured by Ortolan Bunting in the study area on the basis of expert knowledge and by spatial analysis. We found that these habitats experienced statistically significant decline in their area. The decline was steeper in the region where Ortolan Bunting occurred only in the 1990s and was smaller in the region where the bird was present from late 1990s till 2012. However, our analyses did not confirm direct relationship between the habitat changes and the decline of Ortolan Bunting population, i.e. we did not find that decline of favourable habitat significantly affected decline of the species population. The main reasons for the decrease of favourable habitats in the study area are changes in agricultural practices, especially spread of mechanisation that have caused an increase in the size of fields and a drastic reduction of groups of trees and solitary trees. Additionally, widespread grassing of vineyards and other plots as a result of integrated and organic farming contributed to the decrease of favourable habitats. Practices in the form of planting new trees and leaving parts of managed land bare to be used for mitigating the decline of the bird population were discussed.

The extent of the area occupied by populations of roe deer and the diversity of environments in which it lives, determine the existence of different local forms or ecotypes. In order to characterize the populations of the Guadarrama Mountains in the centre of the Iberian Peninsula we examined the morphology and fur colouration of 154 roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) based on their body size, age and sex. To determine the age of roe deer, we analyzed tooth cementum layers (incisor I1) to observe the growth lines. The remaining individual data (body size, sex and fur colouration) were obtained in the field, from animals hunted in the study area. In adult individuals, the average body weight in males was significantly higher than in females, being these weight ranges similar to those of the Iberian Peninsula and the rest of Europe. Body measurements were positively related to individuals age, but only significant differences in body girth were found between males and females. The analysis of fur colouration of dead specimens showed a high variability with four different ecotypes during the summer coat and not significant differences were found in the body size between individuals with different summer coats. The morphological parameters described in the roe deer of the Guadarrama Mountains do not correspond with the latitudinal gradient as it was indicated for other Spanish populations. However, the existence of Pleistocene refuges in the central mountains of the Iberian Peninsula seems to have provided a high variety of ecotypes in relation to fur colouration in the populations of Guadarrama Mountains.

A warming experiment with two magnitudes was performed in an alpine meadow of Northern Tibet since late June, 2013. Open top chambers (OTCs) with two top diameters (0.60 m and 1.00 m) were used to increase soil temperature. Soil respiration (R_s) was measured during the growing season in 2013–2014. The OTCs with top diameters of 1.00 m and 0.60 m increased soil temperature by 1.30 and 3.10oC, respectively, during the whole study period, but decreased soil moisture by 0.02 and 0.05 m³ m^-3, respectively. However, the two patters of OTCs did not affect R_s. These results implied that a higher warming did not result in a higher R_s but a greater soil drying. Therefore, a higher warming may not cause a higher soil respiration, which was most likely due to the fact that a higher warming may result in a greater soil drying.

The Grayling Hipparchia semele L. belongs to rapidly vanishing butterfly species in its central and western European range. We studied larval microhabitat preferences of two last viable populations of the Grayling in the Czech Republic. The field study was carried out at two types of human-influenced habitats: a fly ash deposit — a postindustrial site partly left under natural succession processes, and a semi-natural extensively grazed xeric calcareous grassland in May and June 2012 and 2013. During five nights, 89 caterpillars were found (fly ash deposit: 8, xeric grassland: 81). The caterpillars were found on steeper slopes covered with sparse shrubs and shorter herbaceous vegetation with high amount of bare soil or rocks. The most frequently observed behaviour was feeding on fine-leaf fescue grasses with varied size of tufts and rather smaller height up to 20 cm. Usage of larval preferences in a way of active conservation management application is discussed.

The fat dormouse (Glis glis L.) is a small arboreal and extreme habitat specialist mammal that is tightly linked to the deciduous mixed forests dominated by Beech (Fagus orientalis) and oaks (Quercus sp.). Despite its status in Iran as a least concern species, dormice face high risk of extinction in some parts of Europe. The unique life history and large scale distribution of the species in the Palearctic region made it as an ideal model species. This habitat specialist rodent is particularly sensitive to size and connectivity of the forest patches. The fat dormouse shows very deep molecular and morphological divergence in its eastern most parts of its global distribution, in the Hyrcanian refugium of the Northern Iran. Therefore modeling its distributional range can leads to identify biodiversity hotspots and planning conservation activities. The meteorological data, land cover types, topographical variables and geo-referenced points representing geographical locations of the fat dormouse populations (latitude/longitude) in the study area were used as the primary MaxEnt model input data. The predictive accuracy of the Fat Dormouse ecological niche model was significant (training accuracy of 93.3%). This approach successfully identified the areas of the fat dormouse presence across the study area. The result suggests that the maximum entropy modeling approach can be implemented in the next step towards the development of new tools for monitoring the habitat fragmentation and identifying biodiversity hotspots.