Conservation efforts determining the health status of individuals can aid in assessing population health and sustainability. Body condition was determined in 65 free-ranging Eastern box turtles (Terrapene carolina carolina) from four locations in Vermilion County, Illinois, in the months of May, July, and September 2014, 2015, and 2016 using computed tomography (CT). Physical examinations were performed to determine morphometric measurements, and CT scans measured body fat. Twenty-three linear models were constructed to determine which morphometric measurements best correlated to fat content. The top two models of body fat included a relationship between mass and carapace width. Fat increases as both mass and carapace width increase. CT, while impractical for daily use, improved on previous methods of measuring body condition and created a calculation that can be applied broadly to Eastern box turtles. By understanding how measurements of mass and carapace width correlate to body condition, practitioners, researchers, and conservationists can evaluate chelonians with increased confidence in the accuracy of their assessment.

A retrospective histologic study was performed for 96 deceased bongo (Tragelaphus eurycerus) submitted to Northwest ZooPath from 1995 to 2015. Histologic data were assessed for associations with sex, age, cause of death/euthanasia, and affected organ systems. Female bongo lived significantly longer than males. Males were more likely to die from infectious causes (41.2%), whereas most females died from chronic noninfectious conditions (54.4%) and trauma/stress (28.1%). Of those that died from infectious disease, the respiratory tract was the most commonly affected organ system. The most common infectious agents included acid-fast bacteria and fungi. Chronic conditions included amyloidosis (31.0%), inanition/emaciation (23.8%), and neoplasia (21.4%). Of the 31 animals that died with amyloidosis, 58% appeared to be clinically affected, and amyloidosis was likely an underlying cause of death in 42% of the animals. The most commonly affected organs included the liver, kidneys, adrenal glands, and gastrotintestinal tract. Also noteworthy was a high prevalence of adrenal gland hyperplasia and neoplasia, cystic thyroid glands, and aspiration pneumonia, which were not consistently associated with a prior anesthetic event or other obvious predisposing cause.

The objective of this study was to compare surface, esophageal, and cloacal temperatures in awake iguanas, chameleons, and snakes at two different ambient temperatures and in alligators at one ambient temperature. Surface, esophageal, and cloacal temperatures were measured in all animals twice, with exception of the alligators, where temperatures were taken once. The first set of temperature readings was done at lower environmental temperature. An analysis of variance (ANOVA) with a mixed-effect model was used to analyze the temperature difference between esophageal and cloacal temperature against each other, and against surface temperature. Significance was set at P < 0.05. In all animals, surface, esophageal, and cloacal temperatures increased significantly (P < 0.0001) with increased ambient temperature. Esophageal and cloacal temperature were not significantly different from each other in iguanas and chameleons at lower environmental temperature or in snakes and chameleons at high ambient temperature. In snakes, esophageal temperature 26.1 ± 1.6°C was significantly higher than cloacal temperature 25.2 ± 0.9°C (P = 0.0016) at lower ambient temperature. In alligators no difference between esophageal and cloacal temperature was observed at the given ambient temperature. Surface temperature was significantly lower than esophageal and cloacal temperature in all species investigated, except iguanas at lower ambient temperature. The results of this study suggest that in healthy awake iguanas and chameleons at any ambient temperature and in snakes at high ambient temperature, cloacal temperatures are reflective of esophageal temperature in the species evaluated. In alligators, rectal temperature reflected esophageal temperature at the given ambient temperature. Surface temperature in contrast was underestimating esophageal temperature in all species investigated.

Whole blood transfusions are an essential treatment modality during rehabilitation of stranded sea turtles, however, standardized protocols for transfusions are not available in reptile medicine. The objective of this study was to optimize a cross-matching protocol for sea turtle blood transfusions. Fresh venous blood samples from 15 turtles (n = 14 green turtles, Chelonia mydas [Cm]; n = 1 loggerhead sea turtle, Caretta caretta [Cc]) were tested using a temperature-appropriate (i.e., reflecting body temperature), time-sensitive protocol in 26 reactions using two procedures for cross-match evaluation at 30 and 60 min at ambient air and water bath temperature. There were no significant differences between both protocols at 30- and 60-min incubation times or between microscopic evaluations at 2 or 5 min. The major cross-match identified 7/22 incompatible Cm–Cm reactions as observed by microscopic erythrocyte agglutination. Minor cross-matches resulted in 6/22 incompatible Cm–Cm reactions. About half of all Cm–Cm reactions (12/22) were compatible by major and minor cross-match. All Cc–Cm reactions (4/4) were incompatible. A higher than expected proportion of incompatible Cm cross-matching reactions suggests preexisting antibodies to nonself erythrocyte antigens in this species, or other factors promoting erythrocyte aggregation or agglutination. Preliminary data across Cm and Cc suggests cross-species incompatibility. These results indicate that sea turtles may react to donor erythrocytes even at the first transfusion. Concurrent major and minor cross-matching using the proposed protocol at 30-min incubation at room temperature should be considered a necessary and effective way to test for patient and donor incompatibilities in sea turtles.

Flunixin meglumine, a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory medication, has been used in rhinoceros species at doses extrapolated from domestic animals. There is increasing evidence to suggest significant variations exist in metabolism of drugs in exotic species. Due to the differences in drug metabolism, dose extrapolation from domestic animals may not be appropriate for exotic species. The objective of this study was to investigate the pharmacokinetics of flunixin meglumine in five white rhinoceroses (Ceratotherium simum) administered a single (1 mg/kg) oral dose of a commercial equine flunixin meglumine paste. Concentrations of flunixin and its metabolite 5-OH flunixin were analyzed, and pharmacokinetic parameters were estimated for each animal. Mean observed plasma concentrations peaked at 1,207 ± 601 ng/ml and occurred at 3 ± 1 hr. The geometric mean of the apparent elimination half-life after oral administration was 8.3 ± 1.2 hr. This data suggests that flunixin meglumine appears to be slowly metabolized or slowly absorbed in this species. No adverse clinical effects were observed during the study period. A single dose of 1 mg/kg appears safe for use in the white rhinoceros. Multidose studies are needed to determine if plasma accumulation of flunixin meglumine occurs and to evaluate safety.

Analysis of serum parameters provides information about body condition, nutritional state, and health status of individuals/species, and has broad application in ecological research and veterinary diagnosis. This study establishes baseline values for serum chemistries of the Olrog's gull (Larus atlanticus). Glucose, urea, uric acid, total protein, globulin, albumin, cholesterol, triglyceride, calcium, and phosphorus concentrations were determined, as was the activity of the following enzymes: alkaline phosphatase, creatine phosphokinase, aspartate aminotransferase, and alanine aminotransferase. Thirty nonbreeding gulls (juvenile and subadult individuals) were captured and studied in Mar Chiquita Reserve (Buenos Aires, Argentina) during the wintering periods 2016 (n = 17) and 2017 (n = 13). In general terms, most values for the parameters reported were in line with those previously described for other seabirds. The year had a significant effect on several of the biochemical parameters evaluated, and the sex had a significant effect on the alkaline phosphatase and calcium. This study has defined the serum biochemical reference signatures for free-ranging Olrog's gulls during the nonbreeding period, and contributes to the knowledge of the overall health status of this threatened and endemic species.

Canine distemper virus (CDV) vaccination using commercial vaccines has been recommended as a useful preventive tool in zoological collections worldwide for the past 30 yr. Zoological facilities have not conducted studies to assess the effectiveness and safety of the multivalent Recombitek C6 and C8 in nondomestic carnivores. They are the only CDV recombinant vaccines available in Latin America. Seventeen clinically healthy red foxes born in Buin Zoo were divided into three groups and administered 1 ml of Recombitek C6 vaccine. Group A consisted of three animals of 9 mo of age without previous vaccination (WPV) that received a single dose. Group B consisted of four animals of 10 mo of age WPV; they received a series of three doses with a 21-day interval between doses. Group C consisted of eight animals > 1 yr of age that had received a previous vaccination > 1 yr ago; they received a single-dose booster vaccination. Titers for antibodies against CDV were measured by a serum neutralization test. All animals remained clinically healthy throughout the study period and without clinical signs of disease. Only two foxes (group C) did not show any increase in the antibody titer to the vaccine. All animals of groups A and B seroconverted at 21 days after the first vaccination. Only two animals (both from group B) showed an adequate antibody protective response (titers >100) after 180 days. Absence of adverse reactions in red foxes included in this study supports the safety and apparently nondeleterious effect of CDV recombinant vaccine reported in other nondomestic carnivores. Low antibody response and lack of persistence in the serological response 6 mo after vaccination with a single dose suggested limited protective benefits in this species. Additional research is needed to confirm the antibody titer response to multiple vaccinations in this species.

Mountain bongo (Tragelaphus euryceros isaaci) from Kenya were exported to zoological institutions in North America and Europe in the 1970s and 1980s. In the following 20–30 years bongo numbers declined in Kenya and the Mountain Bongo Repatriation Project was launched. This resulted in 18 adult bongo, descendants of the original translocated bongo, being repatriated from the United States to Kenya in 2004. These newly arrived bongo were inadvertently exposed to heavy tick infestation on release in a conservancy on the slopes of Mount Kenya. Mortality and morbidity occurred during the third week after arrival. Theileria sp. infection was apparent from the history, clinical signs, and necropsy findings, and Theileria-like parasites were detected microscopically in samples from sick and dead animals. Four bongo died before the outbreak was controlled. In order to identify the Theileria parasite conclusively, molecular amplification techniques were used. A combination of reverse line blotting, with small subunit ribosomal RNA (SSU rRNA) polymerase chain reaction (PCR) amplification and nucleotide sequencing, identified the protozoan parasite Theileria taurotragi, suggesting this as the most probable cause of mortality and morbidity in the repatriated bongo.

Boat strikes have been widely documented as a major cause of anthropogenic trauma and mortality in sea turtles. Axial trauma in these species involves the head and/or carapace and may cause severe damage to the nervous and pulmonary systems. The aims of this study were to develop an updated protocol for neurologic examinations in sea turtles, to describe computed tomography (CT) findings in sea turtles with sustained trauma, and to associate CT findings with neurologic status in sea turtles with and without traumatic injury. Ten sea turtles were examined, six green (Chelonia mydas) and four loggerhead (Caretta caretta) turtles: seven underwent neurologic and CT examinations, two had CT examinations only, and one had a neurologic examination only. The updated neurologic examination protocol was considered useful in differentiating normal from abnormal neurologic status, however some of these tests remain unreliable in sea turtles. Sea turtles with no history of trauma were found to have normal carapace shape, vertebral column, and neurologic status. Sea turtles with history of traumatic injury (more than 10 years prior to examination) had findings dependent on trauma site. Those with head trauma had variable presentations dependent on location of injury; while those with carapace trauma had varying degrees of kyphosis, lordosis, and scoliosis of the carapace, vertebral fractures, and paraparesis. Kyphosis of the carapace was associated with vertebral fractures detected on CT; however, the severity of vertebral abnormalities was not associated with the severity of neurologic deficits. These findings suggest that a combination of neurologic and CT examination may be beneficial in determining clinical significance of carapace deformation and associated neurologic deficits in sea turtles with traumatic injury.

Colloid osmotic pressure (COP) is an important component of the forces that manage capillary filtration and is determined by circulating plasma proteins. Patients affected by conditions resulting in hypoproteinemia often suffer severe hemodynamic derangements, including decreased COP. Because chronically debilitated sea turtles (CDT) present with severe hypoproteinemia, the objectives of this study were to 1) determine differences in plasma COP and blood analyte data (packed cell volume [PCV], sodium, chloride, plasma protein fractions) in CDT at admission compared with data from apparently healthy rehabilitated turtles at time of release (HRT) admitted from various stranding causes, and 2) to investigate correlations of COP with these selected blood analytes. COP, PCV, and most plasma protein fractions (excluding pre-albumin and γ-globulins) were significantly lower in CDT upon admission as compared with HRT. Sodium and chloride did not significantly differ between CDT and HRT. A significant increase was observed with PCV and all plasma protein fractions as COP increased. Of all protein fractions tested, albumin contributed the most toward COP (r² = 0.88, P < 0.001). The results of this study suggest that COP is significantly lower in CDT as compared with HRT, providing insight into the complexity of this critical clinical condition and a small step in advancing the understanding of associated hemodynamic imbalances. Although COP analysis is not readily available as a diagnostic test, this preliminary baseline data suggests that additional research studies are warranted, given the potential for optimization of fluid therapy during rehabilitation of CDT.

Intravascular access in batoid species is commonly achieved using the ventral coccygeal or radial wing vessels. However, these approaches can be difficult because of the presence of cartilage, lack of specific landmarks, species variation, and small vessel size in many species. This study used postmortem contrast radiography and gross dissection to develop landmarks for a new, dependable vascular access in three Myliobatiform species commonly maintained in captivity: Atlantic stingray (Hypanus sabinus), cownose ray (Rhinoptera bonasus), and smooth butterfly ray (Gymnura micrura). The mesopterygial vein provides quick vascular access and is suitable for administration of large fluid volumes and intravascular drugs. It is located immediately ventrolateral to the metapterygium cartilage, which sits adjacent to the coelomic cavity and supports the caudal half of the pectoral fin. Using the pectoral girdle and cranial third of the metapterygium cartilage as landmarks, vascular access can be achieved by directing a needle medially at approximately a 30° (adult cownose rays) or 45° angle (Atlantic stingrays, juvenile cownose rays, smooth butterfly rays) toward the metapterygium cartilage. Differences in the degree of needle direction are due to species and age-specific shapes of the metapterygium cartilage. The mesopterygial vein is an alternate site of quick and reliable venous access in batoid species.

Musculoskeletal problems are one of the top five causes of disease in elephants. However, recent blood chemistry analysis is the only routine protocol for bone mineral status evaluation, with no assessment method currently available for the direct measurement of elephant bone mineral density (BMD). This work applied the the dual-energy X-ray technique (DXA) technique for bone density assessment. The elephant's tail was chosen for the analysis to avoid the radiation harm. Twelve live Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) comprising eight males and four females with ages in the range of 4–77 yr were investigated. The BMD was calculated based on radiographic images acquired using the DXA technique carried out at 40 kVp 2 mAs and 50 kVp 2 mAs. Blood serum analysis of total calcium (Ca), phosphorus (Phos) and alkaline phosphatase (ALP) content was conducted in parallel with the physical examination to correlate age and BMD. Analyses produced an overall mean BMD value in the range of 0.54–1.39 g/cm², with that of the males higher than that of the females. The BMD was found to be negatively correlated with age, Ca, and Phos, but not with ALP. In summary, the BMD analysis of an elephant's tail might be used with blood serum Ca and Phos to predict the overall bone mineral status of the animal.

Fish lice, ectoparasites of the genus Argulus, are branchurian crustaceans that can significantly impact fish health by causing mechanical damage to cutaneous barriers and increasing susceptibility to other infections. While many treatments have been reported in teleosts and invertebrates, there are no published treatments for elasmobranchs. This study evaluated the safety and efficacy of a commercial formulation of milbemycin oxime and lufenuron in freshwater stingrays for treatment of Argulus spp. Seven juvenile Magdalena river stingrays (Potamotrygon magdalenae) and 10 juvenile smooth back river stingrays (Potamotrygon orbignyi) had severe infestations of Argulus spp. that were identified visually and microscopically. Animals were treated with milbemycin oxime and lufenuron (at 0.015 mg/L and 0.30 mg/L, respectively) in a 6-hr immersion once weekly for two treatments. They were visually examined for skin lesions as well as behavior and appetite daily by animal care staff. A subset of animals was euthanized and necropsied on days 8, 9, 43, and 78 after treatment initiation. There were no Argulus spp. detected at the time of the second treatment. Complete gross and histologic evaluations were completed for all animals. At all time points, no gross abnormalities were detected with the exception of thin body condition in some animals; no Argulus spp. were noted. Histologic lesions were all attributed to poor nutritional state at the time of acquisition. No histologic evidence of acute or chronic toxicosis was detected. The commercial formulation of milbemycin oxime and lufenuron, applied at the dose and for the exposure time used in this study, effectively eradicated Argulus spp. in a population of juvenile P. magdalenae and P. orbignyi, and did not cause mortality or clinical gross or histologic evidence of acute or chronic toxicity.

The objective of this study was to determine the accuracy of a noninvasive oscillometric method in relation to invasively measured blood pressure in anesthetized Bennett's wallabies (Macropus rufogriseus) and also to compare the accuracy of two commonly used oscillometric blood pressure monitors (manufactured by Cardell and Datascope). Eleven animals were anesthetized, and each animal was instrumented with an arterial catheter in the right medial metatarsal artery connected to a pressure transducer to obtain invasive measurements of systolic (SAP), diastolic (DAP), and mean (MAP) arterial blood pressure as well as a pressure waveform. A cuff connected to an oscillometric device was placed on the base of the tail for noninvasive measurements. Paired data from noninvasive and invasive blood pressure measurements (SAP, DAP, and MAP) were obtained every 5 min for 60 min. Bland–Altman plots were used to compare invasive and noninvasive measurements and calculate bias and 95% limits of agreement for SAP, DAP, and MAP. For both monitors, the bias of SAP, DAP, and MAP was significant, although the bias of the Cardell was consistently lower than that of the Datascope for all parameters. Limits of agreement were wide for all parameters. In conclusion, when using an oscillometric blood pressure monitor on anesthetized Bennett's wallabies, trends in blood pressure may be monitored, although all displayed readings may not represent the true blood pressure measurement. Indirect measurements of blood pressure made with the oscillometric device cannot substitute for direct measurements.

Multidetector computed tomography (MDCT) scans were performed in clinically healthy, nonanesthetized, standing little penguins (Eudyptula minor) to determine reference ranges for air-sac and lung volumes, as well as lung density. Five of 15 clinically healthy birds were diagnosed with pulmonary granulomas on initial MDCT scans. Granulomas were not readily apparent on radiographs, even in cases where the entire normal pulmonary parenchymal architecture was effaced on the MDCT scan. Serial MDCT scans after antifungal and antimycobacterial therapies demonstrated a response to treatment. MDCT scanning in nonanesthetized little penguins proved to be a well-tolerated, non-invasive imaging modality for respiratory diseases that are otherwise difficult to diagnose, including aspergillosis and mycobacteriosis.

Snake fungal disease (SFD) is an emerging mycotic disease caused by Ophidiomyces ophiodiicola, and has been demonstrated to impact snake populations of conservation concern in the United States negatively. Although Ophidiomyces has been shown to affect diverse taxa and to have a broad distribution, host factors associated with infected individuals and optimal testing protocols are not yet well characterized. The purpose of this study was to evaluate host factors and agreement across testing modalities associated with Ophidiomyces infection in a free-ranging snake population in southeast Ohio. Wild-caught snakes were swabbed and biopsied to test for Ophidiomyces via quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR), culture, and histopathology. The host parameters assessed were species, sex, snout–vent length, body weight, month captured, and presence of gross skin lesions. A total of 8/30 individuals across three species—Black Racers (Coluber constrictor), Grey Ratsnakes (Pantherophis spiloides), and Eastern Gartersnakes (Thamnophis sirtalis sirtalis)—tested positive via at least one testing modality for Ophidiomyces infection. There were no associations between sex, snout–vent length, or weight and Ophidiomyces infection status. A higher proportion of individuals with gross lesions tested positive for Ophidiomyces than those without gross lesions, and most individuals that tested positive were caught in April or May. A low level of agreement was observed across testing modalities. Swab qPCR identified the most Ophidiomyces-positive individuals, and fungal culture identified the fewest at 0 individuals. Although there are limitations associated with a sample size of 30, these findings support the potential of this pathogen to infect individuals broadly across species and size, highlighting the relevance of this disease for snake conservation efforts. They also suggest that although little agreement was observed across test modalities, the concurrent use of multiple modalities is a more sensitive method for characterizing prevalence and distribution of Ophidiomyces.

The usefulness of a human enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) for serological diagnosis of Baylisascaris procyonis larva migrans was assessed in nonhuman primates (NHP). The test was originally developed as an assay performed on human samples at Purdue University. Six participating zoos submitted 258 NHP serum samples, spanning these major phylogenetic groups: 1) great apes (n = 84), 2) lesser apes (n = 17), 3) Old World monkeys (n = 84), 4) New World monkeys (n = 20), and 5) prosimians (n = 53). Sera were tested in duplicate using a microtiter-well ELISA with B. procyonis larval excretory-secretory proteins as antigen, and serum from an experimentally infected baboon (Papio anubis) served as positive control. The ELISA clearly identified seropositive animals in all zoos. With putative cutoffs of optical density (OD) measured at 405 nm (OD405) of <0.150 = negative, 0.150–0.250 = indeterminate, and >0.250 = positive, 149 of 258 (57.8%) were clearly negative (mean OD 0.046), and 78 of 258 (30.2%) were clearly positive (mean OD 0.657, range 0.253–1.773), the rest being indeterminate. Of these, 15 were high positive with OD 1.095–1.773 (mean 1.314). Positive animals were seen from all zoos; 76 (97.4%) were great apes, lesser apes, or Old World monkeys. The four highest ODs were in a siamang (Symphalangus syndactylus), lion-tailed macaque (Macaca silenus), Sumatran orangutan (Pongo abelii), and western lowland gorilla (Gorilla gorilla gorilla), all from different zoos. Prosimians had a mean OD of 0.039 and New World monkeys 0.021, indicating that human reagents either did not work for these groups or few infected animals were represented. These results indicate that the human ELISA for B. procyonis works well for at least higher phylogeny NHP and that serologic evidence of infection is surprisingly common, correlating with what is known for exposure to this parasite in zoos.

For many reptile species, adequate ultraviolet B (UVB) radiation is essential for proper calcium metabolism. In this study, the effects of UVB radiation on calcium metabolism were evaluated in green sea turtles (Chelonia mydas). 25-Hydroxyvitamin D, parathyroid hormone (PTH), and ionized calcium (iCa) were measured in juvenile (n = 18, 9 indoor, 9 outdoor) and adult (n = 8, 4 indoor, 4 outdoor) turtles. All animals were fed an identical diet. Outdoor animals had access to unfiltered sunlight, whereas indoor animals were housed under artificial lighting without UVB. Mean values for 25-hydroxyvitamin D for the outdoor and indoor groups were 34.33 ± 7.98 nmol/L and 7.11 ± 1.69 nmol/L for juveniles and 73.25 ± 30.34 nmol/L and 14.0 ± 11.52 nmol/L for adults respectively. Mean values for iCa for the outdoor and indoor groups were 0.98 ± 0.07 mmol/L and 0.99 ± 0.06 mmol/L for juveniles and 1.18 ± 0.22 mmol/L and 0.97 ± 0.18 mmol/L for adults respectively. UVB exposure (P < 0.001) and age (P < 0.001) had a significant effect on 25-hydroxyvitamin D as well as a significant interaction between the two variables (P = 0.008), with highest values in adult outdoor turtles. There was a significant interaction between age group and UVB status for iCa (P = 0.036), with greater values in older outdoor turtles. 25-Hydroxyvitamin D and total calcium were positively correlated, rs = 0.39, P = 0.042. iCa and calcium-to-phosphorus ratios were also positively correlated, rs = 0.42, P = 0.027. These results suggest that UVB exposure is an important source of 25-hydroxyvitamin D for green sea turtles and has significant effects on calcium metabolism in this species. PTH values in this study were near the minimum limits of detection and suggest that current mammalian-based PTH assays are not valid for reptiles.

A group of zoo-housed little penguins (Eudyptula minor) was diagnosed with mycobacteriosis. While undergoing multidetector computed tomography (MDCT) imaging for an unrelated research project, pulmonary lesions were detected in multiple individuals. In general, birds appeared healthy and free of outward signs of disease. After the loss of three individuals, polyclonal mycobacterial disease due to Mycobacterium avium-intracellulare complex was confirmed. Surviving birds were treated with rifampin (45 mg/kg), ethambutol (30 mg/kg), clarithromycin (10 mg/kg), and enrofloxacin (30 mg/kg) compounded into a single capsule administered once a day in food. After 3 mo of therapy, MDCT imaging documented a decrease in nodule size and number in all remaining birds, with further improvement documented after 13 mo of treatment. MDCT imaging was invaluable for diagnosing disease, documenting disease progression over time, and assessing response to therapy. Early initiation of therapy before the development of outward signs of disease led to resolution of mycobacterial pulmonary lesions in multiple penguins. Mycobacterial disease in this group of little penguins, as well as previously published reports, suggests that the species is at increased risk for developing mycobacteriosis.

Hypertrophic osteopathy, a syndrome characterized by painful distal limb swelling and proliferative periosteal reaction, primarily involves the metacarpal and metatarsal bones and phalanges. Lesions are often bilaterally symmetric and typically affect all four limbs. Hypertrophic osteopathy is frequently associated with primary intrathoracic disease, though this condition has also been reported secondary to intra-abdominal and intrapelvic disease and associated with pregnancy in both people and horses. Over a 20-yr period, five adult female Sichuan takin (Budorcas taxicolor tibetana), with 13 total pregnancies, were evaluated because of lameness and distal limb swelling. These clinical signs were observed between 2 and 32 days (mean = 19 days) prior to parturition (gestation period in takin approximately 200–240 days) and resolved in all animals following parturition. Lameness and limb swelling resolved between 8 and 168 days (median = 15 days) after parturition. Sixteen radiographic examinations, from four of the individuals, documented proliferative periosteal reaction, primarily of the metacarpal bones, metatarsal bones, and phalanges. The clinical progression, resolution of signs, and radiographic features in these cases are consistent with hypertrophic osteopathy, secondary to pregnancy. This is the first report describing presumptive hypertrophic osteopathy in takin.

Giant South American turtles (Podocnemis expansa) are at a risk of extinction because of the rapid decline in their population over the last few decades. Metabolic bone disease (MBD) is common in captive testudines, but is often not diagnosed until a later stage. The authors present the cases of four captive giant South American turtles with carapace deformity secondary to MBD that underwent computed tomography (CT) scans of the carapace bones and vertebral column. Findings indicative of changes in geometry were found in both. The cancellous bone pattern was characterized by varying degrees of increased trabecular spacing and cortical thinning of the pleural bones. Bone densitometry analysis of the pleural and neural bones and at the level of the body of the third, fourth, and fifth dorsal vertebrae showed mean density values much lower than those found in two adult specimens of the same species that were considered healthy. In conclusion, CT contributed important information on the degree of demineralization and possible structural changes due to MBD and should be considered a relevant tool for diagnosis of this condition.

One hundred and fourteen mountain chicken frogs were anesthetized, to place intracoelomic radiotracers. The animals were placed in a clear plastic bag that was filled with isoflurane 5% and oxygen. Loss of righting reflex occurred at 3.4 ± 2.3 min; loss of gular movements was observed at 7.6 ± 2.7 min. Intubation was carried out using a modified cuffed tube between 2.5 and 3.5 mm, at 7.6 ± 2.2 min from the beginning of the anesthesia. Manual intermittent positive pressure ventilation every 5 to 10 sec was initiated and maintained through the anesthesia. Isoflurane concentration was maintained at 2%. Loss of withdrawal reflex occurred at 10.6 ± 4.8 min, while loss of response to painful stimuli was noted at 11.1 ± 2.9 min. Surgery started at 16.9 ± 9.9 min; the procedure from incision to last suture took 8.2 ± 2.3 min. Total anesthesia time was 21 ± 6.4 min. Intermittent positive pressure ventilation was continued with room air until the animals recovered the righting reflex, which occurred at 40.4 ± 10.1 min.

Two anesthetic protocols in adult giraffe were compared by retrospective study. Thirteen anesthesia records for medetomidine-ketamine (MK) and seven for medetomidine-ketamine with a potent opioid (MKO) were evaluated for differences in demographic, behavioral, drug, and respiratory parameters. Giraffe stood significantly more quickly with MKO vs MK though MK animals were physically restrained to preclude premature standing as part of normal recovery practices (5.5 min vs 21.4 min, P = 0.01). Regurgitation was recorded in 5/13 and resedation in 4/13 MK animals. The range of values for blood lactate was higher in MKO (5.18–11.25 mM/L) than in MK giraffe (0.78–6.08 mM/L). Despite limitations of a retrospective study, both MK and MKO giraffe anesthesia protocols exhibit benefits and side effects. Awareness and management of these factors will improve outcomes until standardized, prospective studies of giraffe immobilization offer more comprehensive guidance on protocol selection.

Congenital hypothyroidism (CH) in humans is most commonly caused by disruption of thyroid gland development (dysgenesis) or an inherited defect in thyroid hormone biosynthesis (dyshormonogenesis). CH has not been previously documented in great apes. This report describes the clinical presentation, diagnosis, and treatment of CH in a 9-mo-old male Bornean orangutan (Pongo pygmaeus) and a 6-wk-old female Sumatran orangutan (Pongo abelii). Primary CH due to thyroid dysgenesis was confirmed in the Bornean orangutan using sonography and radioisotope scintigraphy. Although commercial thyroid immunoassays are not validated for use in orangutans, in comparison to age-matched controls, thyroid-stimulating hormone level was markedly elevated, and serum thyroxine (T4) and free T4 levels were markedly decreased in both cases. Oral supplementation with levothyroxine sodium resulted in noticeable clinical improvement in both orangutans within 30 days of initiating treatment.

Pharmacokinetics study of ceftiofur crystalline free acid (CCFA) was conducted in 14 adult captive smooth dogfish (Mustelus canis). A single dose of CCFA at 6.6 mg/kg was administered intramuscularly. Blood samples were collected prior to treatment and at 1, 2, 6, 12, 24, 32, 48, 72, 96, 120, 144, and 168 hr posttreatment. Naïve pooling of data from four sharks was used to generate the average plasma drug concentration at each time point. After concluding the study, additional blood samples were opportunistically collected from five randomly selected sharks at 1,920 hr. Plasma ceftiofur and desfuroylceftiofur metabolite concentrations were determined using reversed-phase high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). Pharmacokinetic analysis was performed using a noncompartmental technique. Peak plasma concentration (C_max) was 3.75 µg/ml with a time to Cmax (T_max) of 96 hr. Ceftiofur plasma concentrations were maintained above 2 µg/ml for at least 168 hr and were still quantifiable at 1,920 hr.

Two nonrelated Goeldi's monkeys (Callimico goeldii) from the same enclosure developed multifocal alopecia with hyperkeratotic to ulcerative skin lesions on the lower abdomen and inner thighs. Necropsy samples of the first animal showed hyperplastic dermatitis together with in situ carcinoma and intralesional Demodex organisms. The second monkey developed similar lesions 2.5 yr later. Skin scrapings and biopsies also revealed Demodex mites within hyperplastic dermatitis. Long-term treatment with ivermectin, imidacloprid-moxidectin, and sarolaner resolved the demodicosis but skin lesions progressed to actinic keratosis and carcinoma. Both cutaneous neoplasia and demodicosis are rarely described in New World monkeys and these are the first reported cases in Goeldi's monkeys. Since the animals had access to ultraviolet (UV) light, as recommended for indoor-housed callitrichids, the skin tumors were likely UV-induced and the mites have settled particularly within impaired regions. Thus, apparent demodicosis can indicate cutaneous immunosuppression and might alert caretakers to adjust the UV regime.

After a history of intermittent vomiting, endoscopic biopsies of stomach and duodenum were collected from a 13-yr-old male snow leopard (Uncia uncia). On microscopic examination, monomorphic small lymphocytes expanded the duodenal mucosa and occasionally formed intraepithelial nests. Immunohistochemistry of the infiltrating small lymphocytes in the mucosa and within the epithelium had strong, perimembranous labeling for CD3e, with few CD79a-positive lymphocytes located at the base of the villi. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) for antigen receptor rearrangements (PARR) of feline T-cell receptor gamma (TCRG) detected a monoclonal cell population. The sequence of the PCR product was 100% homologous with the feline TCRG gene. By histology, immunophenotyping, and PARR testing, a final diagnosis of enteropathy-associated T-cell lymphoma, small cell type, was made. Homology in the nucleotide sequence between U. uncia and the domestic cat (Felis catus) indicates that feline PARR testing for TCRG may be diagnostic in snow leopards.

Red pandas (Ailurus fulgens) are susceptible to canine distemper, with a number of reported vaccine-induced canine distemper cases. Canarypox-vectored recombinant canine distemper vaccines (PureVax Ferret Distemper [PFD] and Recombitek CDV [rCDV]) provide protection without inoculating a live distemper virus, but there are currently no published data regarding these vaccines' safety and efficacy in red pandas. One hundred twenty-two serum samples were collected from 50 captive red pandas and analyzed for antibodies to canine distemper. All naïve red pandas (n = 20) had negative titers. Naïve pandas receiving two PFD vaccinations had either negative or intermediate titers (n = 4). In contrast, naïve pandas receiving a series of two or three rCDV vaccinations (n = 14) had greater antibody responses. Red pandas vaccinated with PFD >12 mo since their last vaccination and a rCDV booster vaccination showed the highest titers observed. We recommend red pandas be administered a series of at least three recombinant vaccine (PDF or rDCV) vaccinations, followed by annual booster vaccinations.

A 0.5 kg, 5-yr-old male bearded dragon (Pogona vitticeps) presented with a 2-mo history of lethargy, anorexia, and impaired locomotion. Upon physical examination, bradyarrhythmia (heart rate: 20 beats/min) and balance disorders were noted. Electrocardiography revealed a first-degree atrioventricular block (P-R interval: 360 ms). On echocardiography, all cardiac chambers were slightly above normal ranges. Complete blood count, blood biochemistry, and T4 were unremarkable except for mildly elevated aspartate aminotransferase. Adenovirus testing was negative by polymerase chain reaction. Following euthanasia, necropsy revealed marked thickening of the arterial trunks and histopathology confirmed multifocal atherosclerosis of efferent heart vessels, arteriosclerosis of cerebral arterioles, and multifocal spongiosis of brain tissue, more pronounced in the optic chiasma. Owing to its severity, atherosclerosis may have contributed to chronic arterial hypertension with damages to the heart, brain vessels, and brain tissue-optic chiasma.

A 47-day-old black-footed ferret (Mustela nigripes) kit was found dead in June 2016. Histologic examination revealed pyogranulomatous tubulointerstitial nephritis, pneumonia, and encephalitis, with intralesional microsporidia. Transmission electron microscopic examination showed microsporidia with ultrastructural characteristics consistent with Encephalitozoon spp. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and direct sequencing confirmed the presence of Encephalitozoon cuniculi genotype II. This organism has been reported in other Carnivora (i.e., canids, felids, mustelids, procyonids, otariids). In humans, it is generally described as an opportunistic pathogen in immunocompromised individuals. The source of infection in the quarantine facility remains unknown, although two groups of frozen feeder rat kidneys tested positive for E. cuniculi genotype II via PCR. Feeding whole prey to various zoo taxa carries some potential disease transmission risk.

Chytridiomycosis, an infectious disease caused by the fungus Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (chytrid or Bd), has not been well studied in Oklahoma. This is of particular concern regarding the connection between seasonality and chytrid infection. To further investigate this connection, chytrid prevalence and infection load were quantified within amphibians in central Oklahoma from March to October, across two sites in Oklahoma Co. and two sites in Cleveland Co. The results show a trend between seasonality and chytrid, with spring and fall showing higher prevalence and summer showing lower prevalence, which coincides closely with the preferred chytrid growth temperatures. Additionally, periods of high rainfall in May 2015 are linked to increased chytrid prevalence, as has been suggested by other research. Additionally, species exhibiting high chytrid prevalence follow the results of previous studies: Blanchard's cricket frog (Acris blanchardi), American bullfrog (Rana catesbeiana), and southern leopard frog (Rana sphenocephala).

A 3.5-yr-old asymptomatic female Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) with a high load of circulating EEHV1B DNA on qPCR on a routine blood sample, showed progressive depletion of monocytes, lymphocytes, and platelets. Twice daily IV ganciclovir, plasma transfusions, and fluid therapy coincided with a decreasing viral load, which may support potential efficacy of this antiviral drug. An increase in lymphocytes followed initial treatment and preceded the onset of clinical signs. Administration of short-acting glucocorticosteroids for two consecutive days preceded a reduction of lymphocytes, recovery and maturation of monocytes, and gradually decreasing clinical signs, illustrating the potential value of glucocorticosteroids in treatment of clinical EEHV. Three subsequent subclinical episodes with high monocyte and platelet counts did not require intervention. Decision-making was led not just by quantification of viral load and clinical signs, but more specifically by interpretation of the hematological changes using easily accessible, in-house blood smear analysis.

The clapper rail (Rallus crepitans) is native to salt marshes along the eastern United States. Populations are likely stable, but may be at risk due to the degradation of wetland habitat by contaminants. Contaminants can cause adverse effects in birds such as alteration of immune and reproductive function, and previous studies have used this species as a sentinel for estuarine health. Blood samples were collected from clapper rails in Florida and hematology counts, plasma biochemistry panels, and metal assessments using inductively coupled plasma–mass spectrometry were performed. Biochemical and hematology data were too limited to determine if contaminants were adversely affecting clapper rails in this study, but cadmium, lead, and zinc were increased for several birds. Although contaminant levels were not consistently elevated for all birds, additional research is needed to assess if clapper rails in this region are at risk of contaminant exposure due to increasing urbanization and development pressures.

This is the first time fecal prostaglandin F2α metabolite (PGFM) analysis and altrenogest were used to determine and maintain a pregnancy in a zoo-housed black-footed cat (BFC; Felis nigripes). The established pair had not produced offspring during the year since their arrival at Birmingham Zoo. Fecal samples were collected daily and analyzed by enzyme immunoassay for progestagen, estrogen metabolite, and PGFM concentrations. After a 4-mo separation, the pair was reintroduced, and breeding was reinitiated. Two pregnancies were suggested by sustained, elevated progestagen concentrations (mean >3 × baseline) but were confirmed by elevated PGFM concentrations (mean 4–25 × baseline) beginning about 1 mo after presumed or observed breeding. The first pregnancy was lost after ∼51 days, and altrenogest was administered (0.088 mg/kg/day) in order to help sustain the second pregnancy, which went to term, but the kitten did not survive. Ultrasonographic and radiographic evaluations of pregnancy were utilized during the second pregnancy to provide information on litter size.