Forty years ago, Dr. Elizabeth Kubler-Ross in her landmark book On Death and Dying observed “maybe at the end of our days, when we have worked and given, enjoyed ourselves and suffered, we are going back to the stage that we started out with and the circle of life is closed.”²¹ Just as human life expectancy has steadily increased over the last 4 or 5 decades, animal life expectancy has increased, including that of zoologic species. With this has come a need for humans to openly and frankly deal with end-of-life issues for themselves and for their animals, including those in zoos. By necessity, zoos have been dealing with problems such as aggressive pain management and triage, and efforts to incorporate end-of-life care into zoologic medicine. But these efforts have yet to include formal acknowledgment that they are a basic form of hospice. Hospice for humans, and now for companion animals, includes much more than pain relief and geriatric care. This article reviews the concepts and basic practices of hospice and the closely related field of palliative care, their relatively recent application to companion animal care, potential applications to zoologic medicine, and the ways this could provide opportunities for personal growth of zoo visitors and staff, including veterinary staff.

Twenty-three lizards were captured for this study, both males and females (12 males, 10 females, 1 undetermined), with a large range in body weights (40–286 g) appeared to be healthy based on activity level, physical examinations, and body condition scores. Heparinized blood samples from 20 free-ranging basilisk lizards (Basiliscus plumifrons) in Costa Rica were used for determining complete blood cell counts, plasma, and heparinized whole blood biochemical analysis. This information will serve as baseline reference data for future health assessment studies of free-ranging and captive basilisk lizards, as well as epidemiologic, conservation, and captive-breeding studies. A point-of-care analyzer was useful for this field study, and clinical chemistry values from heparinized whole blood samples were similar to values from plasma, which indicates that separation of plasma may not be necessary to process blood samples on site in remote areas. To the authors' knowledge, this is the first report of hematologic and plasma biochemical data from free-ranging B. plumifrons.

To reduce male–male aggression in collared lemurs (Eulemur collaris) at Disney's Animal Kingdom®, a clinical trial of leuprolide acetate (Depo-Lupron®) injections through one breeding season (24 wk), followed by surgical castration after the breeding season was implemented. Daily behavioral observations to record occurrences of aggression were conducted before and during the injection period, as well as after castration. Fecal sample collection began 2 wk before the first injection and continued throughout the clinical trial to determine testosterone metabolite concentration. Samples were collected 3 times per week. Fecal collection and behavioral observation continued for 5 mo after castration. Fecal samples from 3 intact males from other institutions were obtained to compare testosterone values. While the lemurs were treated with Depo-Lupron, testosterone concentrations spiked immediately after injection, and then returned to pretreatment, nonbreeding-season levels after varying lengths of time. Analysis of the behavioral data indicated that aggression was not significantly reduced with Depo-Lupron treatment. However, after castration, contact aggression and wounding decreased to zero. Although the sample is small, this study presents the first documented data on the effects that chemical treatment with Depo-Lupron and surgical castration have upon hormone levels and aggressive behavior in eulemurs.

In the last 7 yr, three different species of terrestrial mammals were diagnosed with Mycobacterium pinnipedii either within one collection or through the introduction of an infected animal from another zoo. The affected species included the Malayan tapir (Tapirus indicus), Bactrian camel (Camelus bactrianus bactrianus), and crested porcupine (Hystrix cristata). In the first zoo, all of these were living in exhibits adjacent to a group of South American sea lions (Otaria flavescens) and were cared for by the same keeper. One infected tapir was transferred to a different zoo and transmitted M. pinnipedii infection to three other Malayan tapirs. The tapirs were tested with various diagnostic methods, including comparative intradermal tuberculin test, PCR and culture of sputum samples, Rapid Test (RT), and multiantigen print immunoassay (MAPIA). The M. pinnipedii infection was confirmed at postmortem examination in all animals. RT and MAPIA showed the diagnostic potential for rapid antemortem detection of this important zoonotic disease.

To evaluate the potential to conduct population-based epidemiologic studies using multi-institutional data, the quality of data extracted from the MedARKS^® system was evaluated with regard to atoxoplasmosis in Bali mynahs (Leucopsar rothschildi). Data extracted for 338 Bali mynahs from 34 institutions were analyzed for completeness, correctness, and consistency and subjectively analyzed for accessibility. Data completeness was ascertained by analysis of missing records, tests, and blank fields. Two hundred and sixty four records had animal enclosure information missing, nine records were missing from the parasitology module, and 85 records did not include tests or results. Data correctness was assessed by evaluation of unclear and inaccurate results. From 2,432 parasitology records, 81 tests (3.3%) were not definitive because of uninterpretable entries. Data consistency was assessed by comparing the problem list to positive tests in the parasitology module and listing of buffy coat smears in the clinical pathology module. Overall, six different terms with 28 values were used to denote “positive for Atoxoplasma sp.,” and a substantial number of discrepancies were found between problem lists, parasitology modules, and test findings among these data records. In general, this study showed that the data contained in a computer patient record (CPR) system for zoos has great promise for population-level studies if specific areas are addressed, including 1) reduced reliance on free-text data entry, 2) universal use of a standardized vocabulary, 3) use of methods to identify and track individual animals accurately and easily, 4) integration of data checks and maintenance methods, and 5) concerted use of “centralized” animal medical record information.

Blood transfusions are a common therapeutic procedure in small animal medicine and have been investigated in some exotic species but little information is available about their safety and efficacy in reptiles. In human pediatrics and small animal practice, the Hemo-Nate^®18-μ filter is used to prevent embolic clots and particulate waste from entering the recipient during a transfusion. The goal of this study was to determine the hemolytic effect of an 18-μ Hemo-Nate filter for whole blood cell transfusions in reptiles using the American alligator (Alligator mississippiensis) as a reptilian model. Results revealed no significant difference in free plasma hemoglobin between the unfiltered and filtered samples (P = 0.21). There was no difference in the prefiltration and postfiltration packed cell volume (PCV) (P = 0.41). Results suggest that an 18-μ Hemo-Nate filter does not cause hemolysis or decrease the PCV of small quantities of alligator blood.

A description of bioencapsulation of metronidazole in adult brine shrimp (Artemia) for 2.5 g/L, 5 g/L, and 10 g/L treatment baths is presented. Metronidazole was detected in adult brine shrimp tissue after enrichment periods of 15 min, 30 min, 1 hr, 2 hr, 4 hr, 8 hr, 12 hr, and 24 hr. The assays were performed using high performance liquid chromatography. There was a positive relationship in both dose and time. When evaluating percent uptake, all three baths demonstrated a similar pattern. All three bath concentrations had a high initial concentration that fell at 30 min and slowly began to increase through the end of the study. Survival of shrimp was not affected by bath concentration but decreased over time in all treatment baths comparatively. It can be concluded that metronidazole can be successfully bioencapsulated in adult Artemia.

Hypothermia or cold-stunning is a condition in which the body temperature of an animal decreases below normal physiologic range and which has been linked to severe morbidity in sea turtles. Reports have focused on the physiologic changes caused by cold-stunning in Kemp's Ridley sea turtles (Lepidochelys kempii) and loggerhead sea turtles (Caretta caretta), but few have evaluated the green sea turtle (Chelonia mydas). This study evaluated hematologic and serum biochemical profiles of cold-stunned green sea turtles in North Carolina, USA. When compared with healthy, free-ranging juvenile green turtles from the same region, cold-stunned turtles exhibited hypoglycemia, hypocalcemia (both total and ionized calcium), hyponatremia, hypokalemia, hypoproteinemia, hypoalbuminemia, hyperphosphatemia, and elevations in uric acid and blood urea nitrogen. These findings contrast with some previously reported changes in cold-stunned Kemp's Ridley and loggerhead sea turtles. These results emphasize the importance of basing therapeutic regimens on biochemical analyses in cold-stunned sea turtles.

A twenty-one-year-old male sandbar shark (Carcharhinus plumbeus) demonstrated signs of chronic weight loss even though its appetite remained unchanged. In addition, the gradual development of a red, circular lesion on its ventral body was noted. After months without any significant changes, a ventral fistula appeared revealing the tip of a wire exposed within its center. The shark was immobilized via intramuscular remote injection through dartgun with etomidate; removed from its exhibit tank; and clinically examined with radiographic imaging, a cell blood count/serum chemistry evaluation, and the use of a metal detector along the body wall. A metallic hook was identified in the coelom about 10 cm cranial to the external fistula. The shark was transferred to an isolation pool for 1 mo. A second immobilization via immersion in eugenol was conducted in order to perform a celiotomy. The hook was located in a liver lobe and was surgically removed. After a prolonged recovery from anesthesia, the shark was released into its primary tank and recovered uneventfully, although some of the skin sutures sloughed prematurely.

A 24-yr-old, male western lowland gorilla (Gorilla gorilla gorilla) was diagnosed with congestive heart failure using transesophageal and transthoracic echocardiology. New York Heart Association (NYHA) Class III was assigned to the severity of the condition. Over 16 mo, this progressed to NYHA Class IV despite increasing medical therapy. Repeated evaluations suggested that implantation of a cardiac resynchronization therapy device with a defibrillator (CRT-D) could benefit this animal based on clinical signs and underlying evidence of dyssynchrony and suspected fibrotic myocardial disease. Surgical implantation of leads into the right atrium, right ventricle, and left ventricle was accomplished. The CRT-D device was placed under the thoracic pectoral muscles during an initial surgical procedure. Improvement in the gorilla's clinical condition after implantation of the CRT-D device was immediate and dramatic. Subsequent scanning of the device was accomplished through operant conditioning. The data from these device interrogations included stored and real-time cardiac data, which were used to minimize recognized environmental stressors and change device settings. Over 4 yr, case management was critical to successful device use in treatment of the clinical disease. This involved medications, training for device interrogation, exercise to increase activity and improve body condition, and phlebotomy attempts. Dietary management was necessary to manipulate caloric and sodium intake and encourage medication compliance. Cardiac resynchronization therapy device implantation, although requiring specialized equipment and surgical skill, appears to be a viable option for treatment of fibrosing cardiomyopathy with systolic dysfunction in gorillas refractory to medical management. In addition to treatment, this device provides cardiovascular data at rest that could allow for early diagnosis and treatment of gorillas with this and other cardiac conditions in the future. This describes the comprehensive medical, husbandry, and training techniques necessary to successfully manage this intense clinical case in conjunction with intracardiac device therapy.

Staphylococcus simulans , a coagulase-negative staphylococcal species, can cause several diseases in humans and animals. This report describes a case of dermatosis characterized by broad, well-circumscribed hyperkeratosis and alopecia on the back of a household pygmy hedgehog (Erinaceous albiventris). Quills and exudates were studied by microscopy. The microscopic examination of the exudates collected from the lesion revealed several leukocytes and numerous gram-positive cocci. An aerobic bacterial culture revealed overgrowth of the same gram-positive bacteria. The bacterium was identified as S. simulans by polymerase chain reaction amplification and direct sequencing targeted to the 16S ribosomal RNA gene. This report is the first to show that S. simulans could be related to the dermatitis of hedgehogs.

Fatal abomasal impaction, often combined with omasal impaction, was diagnosed in 11 bongo (Tragelaphus eurycerus) from five different zoologic collections in the United States between 1981 and 2009. Nine of 11 cases occurred in young females (10 mo–7 yr old) and typical clinical signs prior to diagnosis or death included partial or complete anorexia, dehydration, and scant fecal production. Although the clinical histories in several of the earlier cases are incomplete, clinical signs were known to begin shortly after an anesthetic event in five of 11 bongo (45%). Pedigree analysis indicates that affected bongo were descendants of multiple founders and not from a single family line, suggesting that the development of abomasal impaction is not a strictly inheritable trait. Treatment, when attempted, was variable and included abomasotomy and removal of impacted ingesta, drug therapy (prokinetic drugs, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatories, antimicrobials), fluid therapy, and administration of oral lubricants or intralesional stool softeners. Based on the outcomes in the cases presented here, the prognosis for bongo with abomasal impaction is considered poor to grave.

Phenobarbital has been the primary antiepileptic drug used in primates, but the dosage required for seizure control is frequently associated with significant side effects. Newer antiepileptic drugs and adjunctive therapies currently being used in human medicine provide additional options for treatment of nonhuman primates. This report describes different drug regimes used for control of epileptic seizures in apes at the Milwaukee County Zoo (Milwaukee, Wisconsin, USA), including the addition of acetazolamide to phenobarbital, levetiracetam, carbamazepine, and the use of extended cycle oral contraceptives to assist seizure control in female apes with catamenial epilepsy.

The objective of this study was to evaluate the efficacy and safety of several parenteral anesthetics in blue crabs (Callinectes sapidus). Thirty-one animals were administered one or more of the following drugs by injection into the hemolymph (i.v.) through an arthrodial membrane: etomidate, ketamine, lidocaine, pentobarbital, propofol, tiletamine–zolazepam, xylazine, and ketamine–xylazine. A subset of crabs received intracardiac ketamine. Etomidate had no effect. Lidocaine effects were ultrashort (<3 min). Pentobarbital had prolonged inductions (2 min) and often caused violent excitement and poor anesthesia. Propofol induced light anesthesia accompanied by distress and limb autotomy. Inductions with ketamine, xylazine, tiletamine–zolazepam, and ketamine–xylazine were usually fast (≤60 sec). Their anesthetic effects were generally very short (5–10 min) but predictable, smooth, and with good muscle relaxation. The latter two protocols induced a deep plane of anesthesia more consistently but also more significant bradycardia. Intracardiac ketamine injection was fatal in four of five crabs. In conclusion, the anesthetic protocols were considered unsuitable for prolonged anesthesia. However, if very short-term anesthesia is desired, then tiletamine–zolazepam or ketamine–xylazine is recommended. Further studies are indicated to identify a safe anesthetic protocol of longer duration in C. sapidus as well as in other crab species.

A male yearling harp seal (Phoca groenlandica) stranded and was brought to Mystic Aquarium & Institute for Exploration's Seal Rescue and Rehabilitation Center. The seal presented with a bilateral pendular vertical nystagmus, negative menace response, and a positive palpebral response. Ophthalmological examination by slit lamp biomicroscopy revealed perilimbal corneal edema, excessive iridal surface structures, pupils that appeared to be shaped improperly (dyscoria), and suspected cataracts. Attempts to dilate the pupils with both dark-lighted conditions and repeated dosages of 10% phenylephrine and 1% atropine ophthalmic solution in each eye (OU) were unsuccessful. Ocular ultrasonography findings suggested bilateral cataracts with flattened anterior-posterior (A-P) diameter and possible persistent hyperplastic primary vitreous. It is possible that these structural congenital abnormalities could produce further ocular complications for this seal including uveitis, secondary glaucoma, retinal detachment, and/or vitreal hemorrhage in the future. This case demonstrates the importance of a thorough ophthalmological examination in stranded wild animals, especially if their symptoms appear neurological.

Two of three captive adult African ostriches exhibited inappetance and weakness. In spite of treatment, the two birds were euthanized because of lack of clinical improvement. Postmortem examination demonstrated exocrine pancreatic degeneration, necrosis, and atrophy. Grossly, one ostrich had a markedly diminished pancreatic mass. Histologically, there was massive pancreatic acinar (exocrine) atrophy, marked interstitial fibrosis, and tubular complex formation in one animal, and the second ostrich had active pancreatic acinar necrosis. Toxicologic testing revealed markedly elevated liver zinc levels in the first two birds, whereas the third ostrich had normal serum levels of zinc and continues without apparent disease. This form of zinc toxicosis, while previously reported in different avian species, has been only rarely described in ratites.

Penicillium mycosis, or penicilliosis, is rare in animals. This report describes the clinical signs and pathological, immunohistochemical, and biomolecular findings in a case of avian penicilliosis in a Congo African grey parrot. On gross necropsy, pyogranulomatous changes were identified in the lung, liver, and kidney. Histopathology demonstrated periodic acid Schiff– (PAS) and Grocott-positive hyphae in these tissues. Immunohistochemistry confirmed the genus of the fungus and polymerase chain reaction (PCR) confirmed a high homology with Penicillium chrysogenum.

Salmonella and Yersinia are important enteropathogens in poultry and can affect birds of all ages, including embryos. These food-borne zoonotic enteropathogens are of great economic and medical concern worldwide and are intensely studied in poultry. Information regarding the prevalence of these bacteria in wild birds is scarce and biased toward avian species ecologically linked to humans, which have often been incriminated as both reservoirs and disseminators of these enteropathogens. The prevalence of Salmonella and Yersinia recovered from both the feces and eggs in a population of female pied flycatchers (Ficedula hypoleuca) breeding in nest-boxes in central Spain was evaluated. Salmonella arizonae was recovered from the feces of one female but was not recovered from eggs. Yersinia was not detected in either the feces or eggs. These results may suggest that Salmonella and Yersinia may be uncommon in this population studied and may indicate that these birds are unlikely reservoirs of Salmonella and Yersinia.

A 14-yr-old female eastern black rhinoceros (Diceros bicornis michaeli) presented with progressive suppurative osteomyelitis in her left hind lateral toe. β-Hemolytic Streptococcus sp. was isolated. The animal was treated with multiple systemic antibiotics, and topical wound cleansing. Repeated debridements and nail trimmings were performed for 5 mo prior to electing amputation. The toe was surgically amputated under general anesthesia between the first and second phalanges. Analgesia was diffused into the wound topically via a catheter and elastomeric pump. The open amputation site was covered with adherent drapes and a negative-pressure wound therapy device provided vacuum-assisted closure (V.A.C.^®) for 72 hr. Three months later this animal developed a deep dermal ulcer on the lateral aspect of the right hind limb, at the level of the stifle. Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus was isolated. The wound was managed by initial daily lavage, followed by 1 mo of V.A.C. therapy, with 72 hr between dressing changes. Clinically, this therapy expedited the formation of healthy granulation tissue and overall healing was accelerated. The animal tolerated the machine and bandage changes well via operant conditioning. The use of negative-pressure wound therapy appeared to shorten time to resolution of slow-healing wounds in black rhinoceros.

A 4.5-yr-old, captive-bred, male bearded dragon (Pogona vitticeps) presented for lethargy, anorexia, and increased mucoid salivation with upper respiratory clicks. Diagnostics were declined and the bearded dragon was prescribed ceftazidime 20 mg/kg i.m. q 72 hr. The patient presented again 1 wk later with a marked monocytosis, heterophilia, and lymphocytosis, and a clinical diagnosis of chronic monocytic leukemia was made. Chemotherapy with cytosine arabinoside (100 mg/m² over 48 hr i.v.) was initiated. Forty-four hours into the treatment the dragon became acutely unresponsive and died within 1 hr. Adverse effects as a result of i.v. cytosine arabinoside therapy were not identified despite previous reports suggestive that the drug induces renal failure.

The present study aimed to determine whether Cryptosporidium oocysts were present in stools from captive snakes at Fundação Parque Zoológico (Zoological Park Foundation) in São Paulo, Brazil. Two collections were performed; the first in July 2008 and the second in February 2009. Fecal samples were collected from 74 enclosures that housed 101 individuals of 23 snake species. The stool specimens collected from 16 out of the 74 enclosures (21.6%) contained Cryptosporidium spp. oocysts; all of them were confirmed as Cryptosporidium serpentis, using molecular techniques. Only in three (18.7%) out of the 16 enclosures with positive samples were there animals with clinical signs compatible with infection by C. serpentis, such as regurgitation and significant progressive weight loss. From the results, it was concluded that diagnostic examinations need to be performed periodically, even on clinically healthy animals, as a preventive measure.

A 6-yr-old male Vancouver Island marmot (Marmota vancouverensis) presented for poor hibernation, weight loss, and symmetric trunk alopecia. An abdominal interstitial cell tumor was identified and surgically removed. Serum levels of estrogen were markedly elevated before surgery and decreased after tumor removal, indicating that the tumor had been functionally secretory. Nine months later, the marmot presented with respiratory stridor. A large boney nasal mass was identified radiographically and evaluated by computed tomography (CT) prior to surgical debulking. The marmot did not recover from anesthesia. Pathologic findings included a nasal osteosarcoma with lysis of the cribriform plate, and endocardial fibrosis with degenerative changes within the adjoining myocardium. This is the first known report of nasal osteosarcoma and interstitial tumor in a Vancouver Island marmot.

A large number of vaginal calculi were observed in a juvenile harbor porpoise (Phocoena phocoena) stranded on Whidbey Island, Washington. Vaginal calculi have been reported in other species, but not in harbor porpoises. Histologic examination of the urinary tract revealed mucosal hyperplasia most likely attributable to the calculi. The calculi were numerous (>30), composed completely of struvite (magnesium ammonium phosphate), and on culture yielded Enterococcus spp., a bacterium not usually associated with struvite urolith formation in domestic animals. The only other lesion of note was severe hepatic lipidosis, and its relationship to the development of the vaginal calculi is unknown.

A 4-yr-old male captive hooded seal (Cystophora cristata), previously diagnosed as hypothyroid, died after a 3-wk period of lethargy and inappetance despite treatment that included intramuscular administration of antibiotics and multivitamins. Gross pathologic findings included extensive muscle necrosis over the left flank, an underlying necrotic iliac lymph node, two necrotic pulmonary masses and a necrotic bronchial lymph node. Routine cultures yielded a number of bacterial isolates and a heavy pure fungal growth from the necrotic iliac lymph node; wet preparations of which revealed sporangiophores typical of Mucor sp. Histopathology of necrotic muscle, pulmonary lesions and bronchial and iliac lymph nodes revealed necrosis with a marked pyogranulomatous and eosinophilic inflammatory cell infiltrate and fungal hyphae consistent with a Zygomycete species. This is believed to be the first report of systemic mucormycosis in a pinniped likely to have originated from an injection site reaction.

Hemotropic mycoplasmas, epicellular erythrocytic bacterial parasites lacking a cell wall, are the causative agents of infectious anemia in numerous mammalian species. The presence of hemotropic mycoplasmas in blood samples of neotropical and exotic wild canids and felids from Brazilian zoos were recorded using molecular techniques. Blood samples were collected from 146 Brazilian wild felids, 19 exotic felids, 3 European wolves (Canis lupus), and from 97 Brazilian wild canids from zoos in the Brazilian states of São Paulo and Mato Grosso and the Federal District. Using conventional polymerase chain reaction (PCR), this work found 22 (13%) wild felids positive to Candidatus Mycoplasma haemominutum [4 jaguars (Panthera onca); 3 pumas (Puma concolor); 10 ocelots (Leopardus pardalis); 2 jaguarondis (Puma yagouaroundi); and 3 little spotted cats (Leopardus tigrinus)]. Only one little spotted cat (Leopardus tigrinus) was positive to Mycoplasma haemofelis, and none was positive to Candidatus Mycoplasma turicensis. Two bush dogs (Speothos venaticus) were positive for a Mycoplasma sp. closely related to Candidatus Mycoplasma haematoparvum, and two European wolves were positive for a Mycoplasma sp. closely related to Candidatus Mycoplasma haemominutum. This is the first study regarding the molecular detection of hemotropic mycoplasmas in wild canids.

A 4-mo-old, 185-kg male giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis reticulata) was presented due to stifle effusion and lameness of 3-wk duration. Radiographs revealed a fracture of the extensor fossa of the lateral trochlear ridge of the femur at the origin of the peroneus tertius. Under anesthesia, dysfunction of the reciprocal apparatus was documented by flexing the stifle while the tarsus remained extended. An avulsion fracture of the origin of the peroneus tertius and extensor digitorum longus muscle was diagnosed. An exploratory arthroscopy of the femorotibial joint was followed by arthrotomy to excise the large bone fragment from its soft tissue attachments. Because of the fractious temperament of the animal, postoperative care was restricted to stall rest for 3 mo, and no postoperative complications arose. Only a mild residual lameness remained by 6 mo after surgery.

A public aquarium with a 4-mo history of occasional fish mortalities submitted for necropsy an adult female largemouth bass (Micropterus salmoides) that died unexpectedly. Gross necropsy revealed that the pericardial cavity was markedly distended with partially coagulated blood. Examination of the heart revealed multiple nodular masses in the area of the atrium and two small perforations on the surface of one of the nodular masses. Histopathologic exam of the atrium revealed severe fibrinonecrotic endocarditis and transmural myocarditis with intralesional bacteria. A pure culture of Edwardsiella tarda was obtained from culture of posterior kidney and spleen. An area of stagnant water that may serve as the source of E. tarda was identified, and steps to rectify this problem were taken. Low-level supersaturation was also a significant stressor; the source of the supersaturation was not identified. To our knowledge, this is the first report of cardiac tamponade in a largemouth bass.

Fascioliasis, the zoonotic disease caused by the trematode Fasciola hepatica, is expanding worldwide, with a 17 million people at risk. Rodents, often recognized as a major source of zoonotic diseases, are affected by F. hepatica, with some species playing important roles in the disease epidemiology. The case reported here in a nutria or kiyá (Myocastor coypus) is the first documented case of F. hepatica in this species in Uruguay. Parasitic burden and total egg production detected are markedly higher than reported previously for this species, confirming its potential role as an effective reservoir and disseminator of liver flukes. Although further research is needed, nutria should be considered when designing effective control programs for fascioliasis.

Striped possums (Dactylopsila trivirgata) are small arboreal marsupials for which limited medical information is known. Mastophorus muris is a gastric spirurid nematode of rodents that uses insects as intermediate hosts. Three cases of gastric spiruridiasis caused by M. muris in captive striped possums are reported for the first time. Diagnosis was made by the presence of adult nematodes in regurgitant and at necropsy. Low numbers of nematode ova shed intermittently in possum feces made evaluation of treatment success difficult. No histopathologic abnormalities were identified in one case. Control of M. muris in captive possum colonies may be achieved by interrupting the life cycle of the parasite.

Whole blood from 33 healthy captive Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) was analyzed for 12 trace elements: aluminum, chromium, manganese, cobalt, nickel, copper, zinc, arsenic, selenium, cadmium, mercury, and lead for the purpose of estimating preliminary baseline population parameters for these minerals. Metals were quantified by inductively coupled plasma mass spectroscopy. Baseline ranges for all animals and for all trace elements were comparable to normal concentrations reported in other species. This is the first report of normal trace element levels in the blood of captive elephants.

Skin Diseases of Exotic Pets. S. Paterson (ed.). 2006. Blackwell Publishing Ltd. 333 Pp. ISBN-10: 0-632-05969-9I, SBN-13: 978-0-632-05969-0. Price: $74.99 (U.S.)