The used tire trade has facilitated the introduction, spread, and establishment of the Asian tiger mosquito, Aedes albopictus, and other mosquito species in several countries of America, Africa, Oceania, and Europe. A strategy for detecting these imported mosquito vectors was developed in Spain during 2003–2004 by EVITAR (multidisciplinary network for the study of viruses transmitted by arthropods and rodents). A survey in 45 locations found no invasive species. Eight autochthonous species of mosquitoes were detected in used tires, including Culex pipiens, Cx. hortensis, Cx. modestus, Anopheles atroparvus, An. claviger, Culiseta longiareolata, Cs. annulata, and Aedes caspius. Dominant species were Cx. pipiens and Cs. longiareolata. Aedes caspius was found in only once, near its natural breeding habitat. Considering the recent discovery of an established population of Ae. albopictus in Catalonia, the increasing commerce of used tires in Spain for recycling, storage, and recapping might greatly contribute to the rapid spread of this species across the Iberian Peninsula.

A twelve-month survey for mosquito predators was conducted in Townsville, Queensland, Australia, which is located in the arid tropics. The survey revealed the presence of five predaceous insects but only Anisops sp. (backswimmers) and Diplonychus sp. were common. Predatorial capacity and factors influencing this capacity were then assessed for adult Anisops sp. and adult and nymph stages of Diplonychus sp. against Culex annulirostris mosquito immatures under laboratory conditions. Predatorial capacity bioassays showed that adult Diplonychus sp. preyed upon both larval and pupal stages of Cx. annulirostris quite successfully. Nymphs of Diplonychus sp. proved to be more successful with smaller prey immatures, and Anisops sp adults did not prey successfully on any prey pupae. Increasing the foraging area and introducing aquatic vegetation significantly reduced the predatorial capacity of Diplonychus sp. nymphs, while only vegetation and not foraging area had a significant effect on adult Diplonychus sp. predation capacity. Overall, adult Diplonychus sp. proved to be a more efficient predator than Anisops sp., and field trials are now recommended to further assess the potential of Diplonychus sp. as a biocontrol agent.

Climatic and landscape patterns have been associated with both relative mosquito abundance and transmission of mosquitoborne illnesses in many parts of the world, especially warm and tropical climes. To determine if temperature, precipitation, or degree of urbanization were similarly important in the number of potential mosquito vectors for West Nile virus in the moderately temperate climate of western Washington, mosquitoes were collected using CDC carbondioxide/light traps set throughout the Seattle region during the summers of 2003 and 2004. The type and abundance of recovered species were compared to ecological correlates. Temperature and mosquito abundance were positively correlated, while precipitation was not strongly correlated with numbers of mosquitoes. Potential WNV mosquito vectors were most abundant in urban and suburban sites, including sites near communal roosts of American crows (Corvus brachyrhynchos). Exurban sites had the greatest vector species diversity, and Culex pipiens was the most abundant species throughout the region.

The occurrence of Ixodes ricinus ticks was observed in the suburban locality of Brno–Pisárky (South Moravia, Czech Republic) from March to November, 1996 to 2002. A total of 2,813 ticks was collected. Statistical tests divided the activity of ticks into three periods during the year. The curve of seasonality had two peaks with a maximum in May and August, with a significantly larger number of specimens collected during this period compared to other months. The abundance of ticks during Spring and Autumn months was comparable. All developmental stadia of ticks were found in this locality. The number of larvae, males, and females was not significantly different, but the occurrence of nymphs was significantly greater. Except for the year 2000, there were no statistically significant differences in tick abundance. Tick activity was not dependent on humidity but did vary directly with temperature. This relation had a linear character and could be described by the equation y = 8.3 1.8x.

Vector blood-feeding frequency, parity, and ovarian development are important factors that can influence pathogen transmission. Parity rates of the dengue vectors Aedes aegypti and Ae. albopictus were determined from females collected from August 2002 to July 2004 in metropolitan Rio de Janeiro. A high frequency of parous Ae. aegypti (92.9%, n=550) and Ae. albopictus (99.1%, n=320) females suggested high survivorship of both species. A total of 69% of wild-caught Ae. aegypti females had blood in the midgut compared to 19% of Ae. albopictus. For Ae. aegypti, red-colored midgut contents were associated with ovaries in early stages of development, and brown-colored midguts were associated with ovaries in late stages of maturation. Ovaries of Ae. aegypti females without blood in the midgut were most frequently in stages I and V of Christophers.

Extraction of filamentous algae from river pools is highly effective for the control of Anopheles pseudopunctipennis in southern Mexico. We determined the magnitude of changes to the aquatic insect community following single annual perturbations performed over two years. In 2001, algae were manually removed from all the pools in a 3 km long section of the River Coatán, Mexico, while an adjacent section was left as an untreated control. In 2002, the treatments of both zones were switched and algal extraction was repeated. The abundance of An. pseudopunctipennis larvae pupae was dramatically reduced by this treatment and remained depressed for two to three months. A total of 11,922 aquatic insects from ten orders, 40 families, and 95 genera were collected in monthly samples taken over five months of each year. Algal extraction did not reduce the overall abundance of aquatic insects in river pools, but a greater abundance and a greater richness of taxa were observed in 2002 compared to the previous year. This was associated with reduced precipitation and river discharge in 2002 compared to 2001. Shannon diversity index values were significantly depressed following algal extraction for a period of three months, in both years, before returning to values similar to those of the control zone. However, differences between years were greater than differences between treatments within a particular year. When insects were classified by functional feeding group (FFG), no significant differences were detected in FFG densities between extraction and control zones over time in either year of the study. Similarly, percent model affinity index values were classified as “not impacted” by the extraction process. Discriminant function analysis identified two orders of insects (Diptera and Odonata), water temperature, dissolved oxygen and conductivity, and river volume (depth, width, and discharge) as being of significant value in defining control and treatment groups in both years. We conclude that habitat manipulation represents an effective and environmentally benign strategy for control of An. pseduopunctipennis. Variation in precipitation and river discharge between years was much more important in determining aquatic insect community composition than variation generated by the filamentous algal extraction treatment.

Parity and age composition for Anopheles darlingi and Anopheles albitarsis in the northern Amazon Basin, Brazil, were investigated. Anopheline ovaries and ovarioles were examined in order to determine whether hourly and seasonal parity status for the vectors An. albitarsis and An. darlingi would vary in two different landscapes (forest and savanna/forest) where malaria is endemic in the northern Amazon Basin. A total of 1,199 anophelines (535 An. darlingi and 664 An. albitarsis) was dissected for parity status, ovariole dilatations, and follicular stages. The total number of nulliparous and parous females for both species varied by time of collection, locality, and season. During the rainy season for the first two h of collection, more nulliparous An. albitarsis and An. darlingi females were collected in the first hour (18:00–19:00), but during the second hour (19:00–20:00) more parous females of both species were captured. During the dry season in Copaíbas, more parous females of An. albitarsis were observed in the first hour while more nulliparous females were observed in the second hour. Nulliparous and parous females of both species for both hours were not significantly different at Road 19 in the dry season. This location was characterized by a forest malaria pattern of transmission with higher numbers of parous females and population stability in the dry season. In Copaíbas, the density and parity of An. darlingi increased during the rainy season, and it could be classified as an alluvial malaria pattern of transmission. For Copaíbas, control measures would be more successful if adopted at the transition from dry to rainy season. Further investigation on longitudinal spatiotemporal change in longevity and survival rates would help us to clarify differences in vector competence for An. darlingi and An. albitarsis and add to the understanding of differences regarding prevailing landscapes in malaria epidemiology in the northern Amazon Basin.

This study examined the potential effects of different house construction features on the indoor abundance of culicine mosquitoes in Trinidad (TT) and the Dominican Republic (DR) using xenomonitoring surveys. To assess these effects, a survey was taken of different homes in both countries alongside concurrent indoor resting mosquito collections to determine which features may be correlated with a greater abundance. Between June 2002 and April 2003 data were collected from 104 homes in TT and 121 homes in the DR. In TT, 61 (58.65%) of the homes were located in urban areas and 43 (41.35%) were located in rural villages, whereas in the DR 40 (33.06%) were located in rural areas, and 81 (66.94%) in the urban area. Overall, a total of 1,630 mosquitoes were collected in TT, of which 77% were Culex quinquefasciatus, whereas 459 mosquitoes were collected from the DR, of which 46% were Cx. quinquefasciatus. It was found that in TT and the DR the mean number of Cx. quinquefasciatus mosquitoes was greater in cement homes than in either wood or other poorer quality homes (TT cement 17.43, others 14.43; DR cement 4.24, others 3.41). In TT it was found that homes that had painted interiors were significantly more likely to have a high abundance of mosquitoes resting indoors compared to homes without painted interiors (OR 2.90, CI 1.09–8.72). Likewise, having a painted exterior was not significant, but only slightly so, in TT as having a detrimental effect (OR 2.14, CI 0.89–6.67). Similarly, having a painted interior or exterior was also found to be a predictor of a high abundance of indoor resting mosquitoes in the DR (interior OR 3.13, CI 1.41–6.92; exterior OR 1.97, CI .91–4.26). Reduced adult abundance in TT was correlated with homes being built on stilts, with more than four people sleeping in the home, and having a painted interior. In the DR, reductions were correlated with homes where residents slept under a bed net and with people who lived in a rural location. Changes in construction patterns in the Caribbean region could help prevent human-mosquito contact potentially reducing the transmission of certain vector-borne diseases in the population.

Volatile emissions of adult male Triatoma infestans were collected on non-polar SPME fibers and analyzed by gas chromatography linked to a mass spectrometer. A complex mixture of 16 short-chain esters and acids were identified. The composition of short-chain aliphatic acids (ethanoic to nonanoic acids) was similar to previously reported results. The most abundant aliphatic acid was 2-methylpropanoic acid, constituting 18% of the total volatile content. Also abundant were the esters 2- and 3-methylbutyl 2-methylpropanoate, which constituted 30% and 22%, respectively, of the total volatile content. A similar pattern of compounds was observed in the volatiles secreted by dissected male Brindley's glands; however, in this case, 2- and 3-methylbutan-1-ol were detected which were not found in live insect volatile emissions. Large variability in volatile composition was also observed among the glands excised from different insects. Electroantennographic (EAG) evaluation of the components of Brindley's gland showed significant responses for 2- and 3-methylbutyl 2-methylpropanoate compared to controls. The mixture of volatiles secreted by excised Brindley'sglands and the isolated 2- and 3-methylbutyl 2-methylpropanoate had repellent effects on both male and female T. infestans, possibly associated with a defensive strategy.

In outdoor screen cages, one and two-choice assays were conducted with gravid Cx. quinquefasciatus to assess and improve the efficacy of the Box gravid trap. Subsequently, in a field trial, a modified Box gravid trap was compared with three other gravid traps: the CDC gravid trap, the CFG gravid trap, and a novel design of a sticky gravid trap. A major disadvantage of the Box gravid trap, a relatively low trapping efficacy, was overcome with a simple modification to the trap configuration. By replacing the solid lid of the collecting tray with mosquito netting, the air velocity through the trap inlet was doubled and the quality of the resting sites for caught females was improved. As a result, the modified Box gravid trap caught and retained twice as many Cx. quinquefasciatus as its predecessor in two-choice bioassays in the screened cages and proved as effective as the commercially available CDC gravid trap in the field, but without damaging the collected specimens. Captures with the Box and CDC gravid traps were significantly greater than those of either the Counter Flow Geometry gravid trap or a sticky gravid trap.

Survival of the threespine stickleback, Gasterosteus aculeatus, differed among marshes in a demonstration 9.9-ha multipurpose constructed treatment wetland designed to improve the quality of secondary-treated municipal wastewater in southern California. At a mean loading rate of 3.3 kg NH₄-N ha⁻¹ d⁻¹ (6 kg total N ha⁻¹ d⁻¹), the suitability of the wetland to support a population of sticklebacks was estimated to be low. The development of potentially toxic levels of un-ionized ammonia, particularly during periods when pH increased concomitantly with oxygen generation by phytoplankton biomass > 300 mg chlorophyll α liter⁻¹, and disinfection by-products were associated with lowered survivorship of sentinel fish. Moreover, the high oxygen demand from nitrification of NH₄-N created daily periods of low dissolved oxygen concentration (6-16 h at < 2 mg liter⁻¹) in the open water areas of the shallow marshes. Low dissolved oxygen concentration in open water zones of the seven marshes during a part of each day and persistent anaerobic conditions in the emergent vegetation rendered the majority of the wetland's substrate surface unavailable for successful reproduction by sticklebacks. The potential sites for Gasterosteus to replace mosquitofish, Gambusia affinis and G. holbrooki, as a biological control agent against mosquitoes are probably limited to comparatively cool-water habitats with high water quality, such as riverine wetlands.

The time of development and survival of the pre-imaginal period and the adult body size of Culex apicinus were analyzed in individuals reared from the 1^st instar larva to adult emergence under laboratory and field conditions. In the laboratory, insects were exposed to three constant temperatures (15, 20, and 25° C) and a photoperiod of 14:10 (L:D). In the field, temperature and photoperiod were not manipulated; during the study period water temperature ranged between 15.5 and 24.2° C, and photoperiod changed from 13:11 to 14:10 (L:D). Survival to the imaginal stage at 15° C (85.4%) and in the field (88.8%) was higher than that at 20° C (45.8%) and 25° C (8.3%). Based on femur and wing length measurements, the mosquitoes reared under field conditions (mean water temperature = 20.5° C) were smaller than those laboratory-reared, even when the time of development in the field (29.5 – 36 days) was longer than that observed at 15° C (24 days), 20° C (15 days), and 25° C (11 days). Male emergence was earlier than that of females (protandry) only in the field. Although laboratory conditions included a photoperiod and temperature range comparable with the observed values in the field, the disagreements between field and laboratory results suggest that the characteristics examined in this work could be affected by the joint variation of several factors not controlled in field conditions, such as photoperiod, temperature regime, and/or food quality of larval habitat.

Anopheline larvae generally inhabit the near-surface of aquatic habitats, but they dive and remain at the bottom of these habitats for some time. This study examined forced and voluntary diving behavior and submergence tolerance in the three major African malaria vectors, Anopheles gambiae Giles, An. arabiensis Patton, and An. funestus Giles. The former two species occur sympatrically in temporal and shallow water bodies, while the latter occurs in permanent deeper water bodies. Anopheles funestus was the most tolerant of submergence, but the larvae tended to halt their descent before reaching the bottom by attaching onto a wall. The difference in diving behavior between An. funestus and the two species in the An. gambiae complex may be an adaptation to their contrasting breeding sites, because the former species must spend considerable energy to surface in its typical breeding sites. Both An. gambiae and An. arabiensis reached the bottom and crawled along the substrate, but An. gambiae voluntarily crawled more often than An. arabiensis. The possible importance of asymmetric bottom-feeding between these two sympatric species is discussed.

Bartonella spp. are putatively vector-borne bacterial agents of humans and animals. Fleas have been incriminated as vectors of Bartonella spp. and are suspected of transmitting Bartonella of rodents and bats, but some of these Bartonella spp. have not yet been directly detected in wild caught fleas. We report the molecular detection of Bartonella tribocorum, Bartonella vinsonii subsp. vinsonii, and two novel genotypes of Bartonella from the fleas Xenopsylla cheopis, Ctenophthalmus pseudagyrtes, Sternopsylla texanus, or Orchopeas howardi.

Some populations of Anopheles gambiae s.l. from Cameroon were reported to develop resistance to DDT or pyrethroids but were free of the kdr mutation “Leucine-Phenylalanine” (Leu-Phe). This study reports on the metabolic activity of non-specific esterases (NSEs), mixed function oxidases (MFOs), and glutathione S-transferases (GSTs), three enzyme systems commonly involved in insecticide resistance. Biochemical assays were performed in DDT or pyrethroidresistant populations of An. gambiae s.l. from Douala, Mbalmayo, Pitoa, and Simatou neighborhoods. Enzyme activity was compared to the Kisumu-susceptible reference strain using the Mann-Whitney test. Most of the tested samples had elevated NSE activity (P<0.02). The Douala sample evenly displayed elevated GST activity (P<0.001), while high MFO level was recorded in the Pitoa sample (P<0.001). MFO or GST levels were sometimes lower or similar to that of the Kisumu strain. These results suggest metabolic detoxification is a major DDT or pyrethroid resistance mechanism and emphasize the need for further investigations on An. gambiae s.l. resistance mechanisms in Cameroon.

Enterobacter sakazakii is an opportunistic food-borne pathogen causing meningitis, enterocolitis, and sepsis, primarily in immunocompromised infants. It has been suggested that stable flies, Stomoxys calcitrans L., are a vector/reservoir of this pathogen. In this study, we assessed a) vector competence of adult stable flies (SF) for E. sakazakii, b) effect of E. sakazakii on SF development, and c) survival of E. sakazakii during SF development and colonization of the digestive tract of newly-emerged flies. Our data show that in the colony, adult SF can maintain E. sakazakii for at least 20 days regardless of the food source (blood or sugar) and contaminate the food source. The concentration of the pathogen per individual SF ranged from 1.8 × 10⁵ to 6.4 × 10⁶ CFU. E. sakazakii supported development of immature SF in sterilized cattle manure and sterilized artificial medium (78.3% and 76.7% SF survival to adult stage, respectively). In addition, E. sakazakii survived during SF development and colonized the gut of emerging adult SF but only when SF larvae were maintained on sterilized cattle manure inoculated with E. sakazakii (12.8% prevalence in adult SF) and on the sterile artificial medium with E. sakazakii (21.7% prevalence in adult SF). E. sakazakii was not recovered from flies or the substrate when larvae were reared on cattle manure with a non-sterilized complex microbial community plus the E. sakazakii inoculum. This study shows that SF adults have a potential to carry E. sakazakii for an extended period of time. E. sakazakii supports SF development and can survive during SF pupation and then colonize the gut of newly-emerged flies.

The western black-legged tick, Ixodes pacificus Cooley & Kohls, is an important parasite and vector of disease agents that affect human and animal health in the western United States. This paper presents a review of all published California host records for I. pacificus. Unpublished data from public health, academic, and vector control agencies and researchers were reviewed as well. Host species were identified for each active life stage (larvae, nymph and adult). A total of 108 vertebrate species in three classes (Mammalia, Aves, and Reptilia) were identified as hosts for at least one life stage of I. pacificus. Adult I. pacificus were recorded from 29 species of mammals, 2 species of birds, and 1 reptile species. Nymphal I. pacificus were recorded from 30 species of mammals, 38 species of birds, and 8 reptile species. Larval I. pacificus were recorded from 29 species of mammals, 43 species of birds, and 8 species of reptiles. A table depicting the taxonomic classification of host species is provided. This review adds eight new host records to the California list of recognized vertebrate host species for I. pacificus.