Intense selective harvest of large mammals who carry the largest weapons may lead to an evolutionary shrinkage of those weapons. Currently, evidence suggesting evolutionary effects of harvest is limited to a few species of Bovidae and only 1 study has obtained data indicating a genetic effect. To have an evolutionary impact, harvest must be intense, persistent over time, similar over a large area without an effective source of unselected immigrants, and remove large individuals before they have a chance to breed. Many current harvest schemes do not fulfill all of these requirements, and they are unlikely to cause evolution. Before changes in weapon size over time are attributed to evolution, potential environmental sources of change, mainly density and climate, must be considered. We suggest that the role of weapon size in determining reproductive success, especially in interaction with male age, will determine whether or not intensive selective harvests may have evolutionary consequences. Age at harvest is a very important variable to consider. Changes in age structure over time may reveal underlying changes in harvest pressure or selectivity. A lack of data hampers our ability to assess the potential evolutionary effects of selective hunting. We provide a list of research hypotheses required to advance our ability to assess the evolutionary sustainability of current management practices.

Documentation of autumn and winter roosts of many species of hibernating bats are lacking from western North America. However, recent evidence suggests that rather than using caves and mines, many individuals and some species of bats may roost in inconspicuous rock crevices at these times of year. I investigated autumn use of rock crevices and other roosts by the little brown myotis (Myotis lucifugus) in the Rocky Mountains of western Colorado through radiotelemetry (n = 38). Objectives were to determine the types and characteristics of roosts, describe patterns of movements to these roosts from summer colonies, and contrast findings with results of surveys of bats in caves and abandoned mines in Colorado during autumn and winter. Forty-four autumn transitional roosts and presumed hibernacula were located in buildings, trees, and rock crevices. Bats used short-distance movements changing in elevation to autumn transitional roosts and presumed hibernacula rather than major latitudinal migrations. Roost type and distance from capture site to roosts had the highest variable importance at the landscape scale. Microclimate comparisons showed that buildings provided warmer minimum average temperatures, which may benefit juvenile bats early in the transition season. Tree roost temperatures during autumn would allow bats to conserve energy by using daily torpor and passive rewarming to assist with afternoon arousals. Rock crevice roosts in talus were found to be suitable for hibernation by exhibiting the coolest average temperatures and maintaining the highest relative humidity levels. Autumn access and spring egress to high-elevation talus sites used by these bats were not obstructed by winter snow pack. These rock crevices also provided temperature and humidity levels that would support the persistence and growth of Pseudogymnoascus destructans (Pd), the causal agent of white-nose syndrome. However, bats in this study appeared to roost alone, which could inhibit the bat-to-bat spread of Pd. Surveys of caves and mines within and surrounding the study area revealed few hibernating little brown myotis, suggesting that most individuals in Colorado may instead utilize rock crevices as roosts during winter.

As a periodic assessment of the mammal collection resource, the Systematic Collections Committee (SCC) of the American Society of Mammalogists undertakes decadal surveys of the collections held in the Western Hemisphere. The SCC surveyed 429 collections and compiled a directory of 395 active collections containing 5,275,155 catalogued specimens. Over the past decade, 43 collections have been lost or transferred and 38 new or unsurveyed collections were added. Growth in number of total specimens, expansion of genomic resource collections, and substantial gains in digitization and web accessibility were documented, as well as slight shifts in proportional representation of taxonomic groups owing to increasingly balanced geographic representation of collections relative to previous surveys. While we find the overall health of Western Hemisphere collections to be adequate in some areas, gaps in spatial and temporal coverage and clear threats to long-term growth and vitality of these resources have also been identified. Major expansion of the collective mammal collection resource along with a recommitment to appropriate levels of funding will be required to meet the challenges ahead for mammalogists and other users, and to ensure samples are broad and varied enough that unanticipated future needs can be powerfully addressed.

Molecular investigations recently resurrected the Pacific marten (Martes caurina) as a species distinct from the American pine marten (M. americana). Previously, 2 hybrid zones for these species were identified, 1 in the northern Rocky Mountains and another on Kuiu Island off the coast of Southeast Alaska. We test the molecular perspectives on species status and hybridization using geometric morphometrics to characterize size and shape differences between North American marten species from 6 genetically defined populations: M. americana from interior Alaska, insular M. caurina from Admiralty Island in Southeast Alaska, M. caurina from Colorado, the 2 previously identified hybrid populations, and a third suspected hybrid population on neighboring Kupreanof Island. We found significant differences in shape supporting the designation of 2 morphological species, with M. caurina exhibiting a broader cranial shape and shorter rostrum. We also found significant size differences between species, and also between insular and mainland populations of M. caurina. Morphological intergradation of M. americana and M. caurina in both insular and mainland hybrid zones identified potentially admixed individuals in 2 of the 3 examined contact zones. Under the general lineage concept, our results support specieslevel classification of both M. americana and M. caurina and suggest that hybridization is geographically limited in scope or may not be effectively detected with morphometrics.

For polytypic mammal species, biogeographic barriers including rivers have often been used to delineate taxonomic units under the assumption that barriers have structured their distribution. We tested the importance of major riverine systems as biogeographic barriers in fox squirrels (Sciurus niger) across the state of Florida, where 4 currently recognized subspecies are delineated at major rivers. We also explored whether phylogeographic structure may be limited to ecologically divergent subspecies, specifically between S. n. avicennia and S. n. shermani. Using a multilocus approach to examine diversity, we found that restricted gene flow was only present between S. n. avicennia, located south of the Caloosahatchee River in south Florida, and the rest of S. niger, which is widespread across the state. Mitochondrial DNA revealed that 2 divergent groups of haplotypes are present and widespread across Florida, thus supporting the hypothesis that fox squirrels persisted in multiple refugia during the Pleistocene, and that S. n. avicennia diverged ecologically from other populations of fox squirrels relatively recently. This was supported by isolation with migration models that indicated matrilineal isolation since the onset of divergence between S. n. avicennia and S. n. shermani, which corresponds to the onset of ecological divergence in south Florida during the early Holocene. Isolation by distance at 8 microsatellite loci from the western panhandle to the southern end of the peninsula was significant only when S. n. avicennia was included; however, this was due to the hierarchical genetic patterns identified between S. n. avicennia and the other subspecies as determined by Bayesian clustering, and not due to spatially restricted dispersal. We postulate that the demographic isolation of S. n. avicennia is the result of adaptation to the unique ecological conditions of south Florida.

Rats of the Niviventer niviventer species complex (NNSC) are among the most abundant small mammals in Southeast Asia and China. More than 20 species or subspecies have been reported in the scientific literature; however, this species complex remains taxonomically ambiguous. With extensive sampling and integrated information from molecular and morphological data, we examined genetic divergences and morphological differences among species within the NNSC. Analyses of molecular voucher specimens revealed that the reported geographic ranges of most NNSC species need revision. Morphological analyses demonstrated that substantial differences exist among these species. Niviventer confucianus, the NNSC species with the largest number of subspecies, showed the greatest intraspecific morphological variation. The taxonomic revision presented here establishes 2 new taxa as independent species. This species complex in China now includes 8 species: N. bukit, N. confucianus, N. coninga, N. culturatus, N. lotipes, N. niviventer, 1 new species, N. gladiusmaculus sp. nov., and a new combination N. pianmaensis comb. nov.

Version of Record, first published online October 30, 2018, with fixed content and layout in compliance with Art. 8.1.3.2 ICZN.

Sengis are small mammals in the order Macroscelidae that are shrew-like in appearance. They are cursorial and saltatorial, and both insectivorous and omnivorous. We studied Macroscelides spp. and Elephantulus rupestris with overlapping distributions in South Africa and Namibia. They have similar life histories and are good candidate species for comparative studies. We used geometric morphometric techniques for 3 views of a total of 43 skulls representing E. rupestris, M. flavicaudatus, and M. proboscideus to evaluate variation in skull shape that may be associated with geographical location. We pooled all Macroscelides into a single group because the speciation event was recent. We observed a pattern of shape variation in both taxa that followed a latitudinal gradient from the Western Province of Africa with Mediterranean vegetation to northern Namibia with xeric habitats. At higher latitudes, skulls were elongated with narrow frontals, premaxilla, and maxilla, while at low latitudes, the parietals were reduced and both occipitals and bullae timpanicae were expanded. We interpreted these patterns in the context of predator avoidance and foraging.

The fleshy, movable tip of the snout of most mammals is supported by cartilaginous elements that provide leverage for muscles that control movement of the nose. Mineralization or ossification of the external nasal cartilages within the snout is thought to be associated with increased loading (e.g., in the snouts of pigs) or increased structural support of the snout (e.g., in taxa with elongated noses such as solenodons). However, little is known about the distribution of such structures across most groups of mammals, in part because they are easily overlooked during specimen preparation. Bats (Order Chiroptera) exhibit a diverse array of rostral forms, but have never been surveyed for evidence of mineralization or ossification of external nasal cartilages. We examined micro-CT scans of the heads of 83 fluid-preserved bat species representing 17 families. We observed mineralization of the external nasal cartilages within the snouts of only 5 species belonging to the families Pteropodidae, Molossidae, and Vespertilionidae, suggesting these elements are rare among bats. Mineralized elements varied in size, shape, location, and number among these 5 species, suggesting differences in function related to support and movement of the fleshy tip of the snout, or a role in echolocation.

Analyses of the dimensions and morphology of spermatozoa can be useful in the identification of mammalian species. We compared and contrasted sperm morphology and dimensions in 9 genera and 18 species of the family Cricetidae. Spermatozoa were obtained from the cauda epididymes of animals previously fixed in 10% formalin, and stained with Giemsa or silver-nitrate staining methods. At least 50 spermatozoa from different specimens were examined for each species. Discriminant function analysis was used to distinguish between the spermatozoa of different species and to identify the best discriminating characteristics. MANOVA revealed that differences between species were significant. Species in the same genus tended to group together. Qualitative characteristics that discriminate between species are discussed.

Mexican wolves (Canis lupus baileyi) share their range with a number of sympatric carnivores, many of which are a concern to livestock producers because they can prey on livestock. Determining which predator species is responsible for killing livestock is important for determining appropriate management actions and for the conservation of Mexican wolves. A variety of information can be used to decipher which carnivore species was responsible for making a kill, and mandibular (upper) and maxillary (lower) intercanine width measurements (i.e., bite mark analysis) can aid this process. No research has been conducted to validate the usefulness of bite mark analysis; thus, we used dentition measurements from Mexican wolves, coyotes (Canis latrans), feral dogs (Canis familiaris), bobcats (Lynx rufus), mountain lions (Puma concolor), and gray foxes (Urocyon cinereoargenteus) and an overlap coefficient to evaluate the degree of overlap in intercanine width between these species. We found that larger carnivore species had greater overlap than smaller carnivores, feral dogs overlapped widely with all the medium-to-large carnivores, and upper and lower intercanine width measurements provided similar information. Our data indicated that when investigating livestock depredations for Mexican wolves, bite mark analyses should be evaluated along with additional forensic evidence due to the overlap between many of the carnivore species, and that measurements between 28 and 35 mm have the greatest uncertainty because this range overlaps with feral dogs, mountain lions, and coyotes.

Large herbivores display restricted area searching and, therefore, in food-rich patches, animals should spend more time feeding, move slowly, and take tortuous movement paths. Intersexual differences in social behavior might disrupt restricted area searching that, in turn, might affect ecological differences between size-dimorphic females and males. We measured time the head was up (head up), step lengths (m/min), and tortuosity of foraging paths in 547 focal observations in a nonmigratory population of Roosevelt elk (Cervus elaphus roosevelti) in Redwood National and State Parks, California, United States. Focal observations were 4–15 min in length. Head up was positively related to proximity (within 1 body length of other elk) for females and males but the slope was steeper for males. When males were aggregated with females, head up was more elevated than when males were aggregated with other males. Sex-specific social behaviors did not influence step length and foraging path tortuosity. Social behavior disrupted efficient foraging. Connecting social behavior to foraging behavior can help explain the numerous ways that size-dimorphic females and males display ecological differences.

Southern giant pouched rats (Cricetomys spp.) are large rodents in the family Nesomyidae, native to sub-Saharan Africa, that are best known for their olfactory abilities. In fact, because of their acute olfactory abilities, they are used to detect explosives such as landmines. Understanding the natural scent-marking behaviors of animals in this family seems particularly relevant considering the olfactory nature of biodetection and the importance of olfactory communication among rodents in general. For many rodent species, individuals use scent marking to communicate social information to conspecifics. Countermarking (i.e., depositing scent marks either on top of or adjacent to preexisting scent marks of conspecifics) is a primary way rodents communicate information to conspecifics, and countermarks can serve as both intra- and intersexual signals. We presented male southern giant pouched rats (Cricetomys ansorgei) with male urine marks in novel and familiar environments to determine how and where these animals might countermark. A subset of male pouched rats used urine, anogenital, or cheek rubbing to mark adjacent to the preexisting mark in the novel environment only. No males marked in a familiar environment. We suggest that males countermark adjacent to existing marks in novel environments to advertise individual identity to conspecifics while preserving the identity of others.

Research on the potential causes of population fluctuations in small mammals generally has focused more on biotic than abiotic factors. In this study, we asked whether the rate of population change of 2 widespread small rodents in deciduous forests of North America are associated with a set of weather events expected to affect the rodents either directly or indirectly. We analyzed a long-term (1995–2016) livetrapping data set from 6 field plots in southeastern New York, estimated rates of population change for white-footed mice and eastern chipmunks, and asked whether these rates are associated with any of a set of 5 weather variables selected a priori. Rates of population change of white-footed mice (Peromyscus leucopus), but not of chipmunks (Tamias striatus), were significantly lower during hurricane than non-hurricane years and in summers with drought than in non-drought summers. Reduced population growth of white-footed mice occurred during the same or subsequent season but we detected no longer-term effects. Neither species was affected by autumn precipitation, summer heat waves, or winter cold. Hurricane- and drought-induced changes in abundance of white-footed mice could affect their short-term interactions with prey (e.g., gypsy moth pupae, tree seeds, and songbird eggs) and parasites (e.g., ticks and zoonotic pathogens).

To better understand the relationship between forest complexity and small mammal diversity, we investigated the vertical stratification of marsupials and rodents in 2 forest types with distinct levels of complexity in a Neotropical savanna (Brazilian Cerrado). We livetrapped mammals in gallery forests and the less-complex savanna woodland forests (locally known as “cerradão”) at ground level, in the understory (1–4 m above ground), and in the canopy (7–19 m above ground), for a total of 43,200 trap-nights. We recorded 1,335 captures of 682 individuals (4 marsupial and 7 rodent species). We compared alpha and beta diversity between forest formations evaluating the effect of sampling in multiple vertical strata on estimates of species richness, and determining species turnover among the vertical strata. Our results showed that species associations with specific vertical strata differed between forest types. Alpha diversity of the gallery forest was greater than that of the savanna woodland forest, but in both forest formations, estimates of species richness increased when all 3 vertical strata were considered. In addition, species turnover among vertical strata was higher in gallery forests than in savanna woodland forests. Our results show the importance of sampling at different heights in complex environments to obtain more reliable estimates of species richness and abundance. Furthermore, our study provides evidence for the role of environmental complexity in the vertical stratification of small mammals, with increased alpha and beta diversity in more complex environments likely due to niche subdivision.

Habitat quality and its availability affect the structure of communities at a variety of different spatial and environmental scales, including habitat and landscape levels. Analyses conducted at multiple scales have demonstrated the importance of landscape patterns with regard to community structure. We used a multi-scale approach to better understand the composition of small mammal communities in central Brazil. We delimited 24 sampling units for the purpose of investigating the response of small mammal composition at the habitat, patch, and landscape scales, while evaluating quality and availability of habitat in each patch, as well as landscape configuration and landscape composition. We used a Mantel correlogram to check for spatial autocorrelation, and partial redundancy analysis to correlate the matrix of species composition with the matrix of environmental variables. Small mammal composition was spatially structured and correlated with variables at all environmental scales: vegetation structure (fallen logs, lianas, and canopy cover), habitat patch (normalized difference vegetation index [NDVI]), and landscape composition (total core area—a forest cover metric). Our findings show evidence of the limited dispersal capacity of small mammals and the importance of habitat quality at habitat and patch scales, and habitat availability at the landscape scale, for small mammal composition. This study highlights the importance of a multi-scale approach for understanding community structure in a human-altered landscape.

Terrestrial echimyid rodents typically use subterranean cavities and hollow logs as refuges. We examined habitat characteristics at refuges used by 2 such species of rodents, Proechimys semispinosus and Hoplomys gymnurus, to better understand coexistence of these morphologically similar sympatric species. The study was performed in a lowland moist forest in central Panama from 2009 to 2013. Sewing-bobbin tracking was used to locate refuges. We examined refuge habitat at 2 scales. At a coarser scale (microhabitat), we measured 10 variables within a 5-m radius around each refuge site and an associated random point, which represented available habitat. At a finer scale (refuge entrance), we measured 11 variables within a radius of 0.5 m centered on each refuge and an associated random point. We used discriminant function analysis to search for differences between refuge and available habitats at both scales and for both species separately. We located 70 refuges of both species. Refuges used by P. semispinosus were positively associated with litter depth, canopy openness, numbers and sizes of nearby logs, and proximity to tree-fall gaps, which all indicate forest disturbances. Hoplomys gymnurus refuges did not show any differences from available habitat. Lastly, we found no differences in refuge use between the sexes or age classes for either species. We conclude that interspecific competition for refuges is generally unlikely to be important because small-scale differences in refuge habitats facilitate coexistence.

As development of wind energy facilities continues, questions of why fatalities of migrating insectivorous bats occur at turbines still remain. Numerous hypotheses have been proposed, including a feeding-attraction hypothesis that suggests bats may be attracted to insects congregating near turbine nacelles. To test this hypothesis, we analyzed echolocation calls of hoary (Lasiurus cinereus) and silver-haired (Lasionycteris noctivagans) bats recorded over 72 nights at a wind energy facility in Southern Alberta, Canada. We recorded calls at 3 heights: 67 m at turbine nacelles, 30 m at meteorological towers, and ground level at turbines and meteorological towers. We used feeding buzzes as indicators of foraging behavior. We compared the occurrence of feeding buzzes across heights, and between turbines and meteorological towers to test the prediction that if bats are attracted to turbines for foraging, there will be a greater proportion of feeding buzzes at turbines, and in particular, at nacelle height. We found no significant evidence that foraging rates were higher at nacelle height compared to 30 m or ground level, or between turbines and meteorological towers for either species. For silver-haired bats, foraging activity was greater at meteorological towers, and in particular, at 30 m height. These results do not support the feedingattraction hypothesis for silver-haired or hoary bats, and suggest that while some bats forage in the vicinity of wind turbines, they are not specifically attracted to turbines to feed.

Bat species are facing increasing threats due to climate change, large-scale changes in vegetation, windpower development, and white-nose syndrome, which make research on changes in bat communities essential for conservation planning in North America. The Seminole bat (Lasiurus seminolus) occurs throughout the southeastern United States, and recent evidence suggests they may be expanding their range in North America. I used museum records, publications, and data derived from mist-net surveys conducted by various individuals and organizations to determine changes in the seasonal and historical range of Seminole bats over the past 48 years across eastern North America. Based on records obtained, Seminole bats spend winter along the Gulf Coast, Carolinas, and southern Arkansas, but migrate as far north as Missouri and Kentucky during the summer maternity season. During the autumn juvenile-dispersal period, Seminole bats undergo widespread, long-distance movements and have been recorded in unexpected locations, including the Caribbean, Wisconsin, and New York. Over the past 48 years, the northern edge of their range has advanced 521 km and the western limit of their range has advanced 185 km, at a rate of approximately 11 km/year northward. These data suggest a recent and rapid shift northward, likely in response to climate change, and an expansion westward possibly due to changes in vegetation communities across historic grassland regions.

Climate change is predicted to create increasingly arid deserts with fewer and smaller water sources. Because free water is already limiting for arid-adapted animals, reductions in water likely will impact desert species and how they compete for this limited resource. Our objective was to examine how the size of water sources influenced competition between 2 ecologically similar bats, Parastrellus hesperus and Myotis californicus, in the American Southwest. Bats are a highly successful taxon in deserts, although many rely upon access to free water. We examined bat activity observationally over 35 different-sized water sources throughout the Mojave Desert in southwestern Utah, United States, and experimentally reduced the surface area of 2 water sources. Parastrellus hesperus and M. californicus typically occurred at the same water sources, but both species temporally partitioned their use of shared water sources regardless of the surface area of the water. Experimentally reducing surface area of water sources negatively affected drinking behaviors of both species and resulted in higher overall activity, but temporal partitioning still occurred. While loss of water may influence some competitive interactions, mechanisms such as temporal partitioning can potentially allow continued co-use of limited resources by competing species.

Agricultural intensification is one of the major causes for the global loss of biodiversity and associated ecosystem services. As an alternative to conventional farming, organic management is considered a way to mitigate some of the negative impacts on biodiversity in agricultural landscapes; however, their benefits for bats are not very conclusive. We investigated the hypothesis that organic farming benefits bats in vineyards by improving conditions for foraging through increased availability of prey. We also hypothesized that bat activity would vary between edges and the interior of vineyards in response to prey availability that in turn would be influenced by agricultural management. Bat activity was quantified along edge and the interior of each vineyard type by using acoustic surveys. In addition, we sampled nocturnal flying insects at each site using light traps. Species richness and overall bat activity were significantly higher in organic than conventional vineyards, with organic edges concentrating the highest bat activity. Our results suggest negative effects of agricultural intensification on insectivorous bats. The high bat activity along edges compared to the interior of vineyards suggest that these structural features of the landscape are important components for bat populations in vineyards, and therefore should be considered within agricultural management in order to promote bat abundance and their role as pest suppressors.

Patterns of activity in all animal taxa are selected to optimize time and energy spent foraging under varying conditions of food availability and predation risk. Social behaviors may play an important role in shaping these patterns. For example, animals can increase foraging efficiency via information transfer or reduce energy budgets by roosting in groups. Sociality in male temperate zone bats is rare and remains poorly understood. We determined the factors that influence duration of activity of male parti-colored bats (Vespertilio murinus), which go through a colonial and a noncolonial phase during summer. We radiotracked 14 bats, monitoring their activity for 37 nights, and correlated activity with weather conditions, lunar phase, and especially prey abundance and social status. We found no significant influence of environmental conditions (ambient temperature, wind speed, rain, and lunar phase) on the activity patterns of parti-colored bats. However, males were active longer, i.e., they invested more energy into foraging, when insect abundance was higher and when they were not living in colonies. Nights with higher prey availability provide bats with the possibility of higher caloric intake to balance the cost of flight, while increased efficiency of foraging with roost mates may allow for shorter foraging periods. Confirming a role of social context for the activity of males helps identify behavioral patterns without the confounding effect of added energy expenditure due to breeding, as is the case for females.

Flying foxes (family Pteropodidae) have distinct life histories given their size, characterized by longevity, low reproductive output, and long gestation. However, they tend to decouple the age at which sexual maturity is reached from the age at which they reach adult dimensions. We examined growth, maturation, and reproduction in the Critically Endangered Christmas Island flying fox (Pteropus natalis) to determine the timing of sexspecific life cycle events and patterns of growth. We estimated that juvenile growth in forearm length and body mass increased at a mean rate of 0.029 ± 0.005 mm/day and 0.33 ± 0.07 g/day for both males and females alike. Using these growth rates, we determined that the birth of pups occurs between December and March, with young becoming volant between June and August. The age at maturation for P. natalis is one of the oldest among all bat species. Juvenile males began to mature 15 months after birth and reached maturity 27 months after birth. Females reached maturity 24 months after birth at a significantly smaller body mass (3.6%) and forearm length (1.4%) than males. Significant sexual dimorphism and bimaturation was observed, with juvenile males being 1.5% and adult males being 1.9% larger on average than females for skeletal dimensions only. Growth and maturation are even slower in P. natalis than in the few other Pteropus species studied to date. The slow growth and delayed maturation of P. natalis imply slower potential population growth rates, further complicating the recovery of this Critically Endangered single-island endemic.

The Guadalupe fur seal (GFS, Arctocephalus townsendi) was distributed on the islands of Baja California, Mexico, and southern California, United States. The species was intensively hunted during the 19th century, and in the late 1920s it was thought that it was extinct, but in 1954, a few animals were located on Isla Guadalupe, Baja California. Since the current status of the GFS population is unknown, we used counts of pups collected between 1984 and 2013 from Isla Guadalupe, which is still the only place where the species reproduces, and used Bayesian inference to assess both the population trend and abundance. The GFS population increased from 1984 to 2013 at an average annual growth rate of 5.9% (range 4.1–7.7%), and for 2013 the abundance was estimated between 34,000 and 44,000 individuals. The current abundance of the GFS represents about one-fifth of the estimated historical population size, and although the population has continued to increase, the species has not expanded its breeding range, which potentially affects its recovery.

Understanding the colonization or recolonization of breeding sites used by colonial animals is fundamental to metapopulation theory and has practical applications in conservation biology. Historically, pinniped species were heavily exploited worldwide, resulting in some breeding colonies becoming extirpated. As populations recover, some abandoned sites may be recolonized or new sites can be colonized. We analyzed aerial and ground survey data on pup counts from 3 islands (South Farallon, San Miguel, and Bogoslof) (re)colonized by northern fur seals (Callorhinus ursinus), using classical and Bayesian state-space modeling approaches to describe population growth rates during their initial 21 years, with particular focus on the South Farallon Islands. We used information from tagged animals that immigrated to the South Farallon Islands from San Miguel Island to describe the age and sex structure of the founding recolonizers of the South Farallon Islands. We also examined the evidence for the generality of Roux's (1987) description of fur seal population recovery using a literature review of published fur seal population growth rates. We found the 3 colonies had different annual population growth rates (South Farallon = 34%, San Miguel = 45%, Bogoslof = 59%), but all were growing at rates among the fastest observed for fur seals worldwide. Immigrants from San Miguel to the South Farallon Islands were younger and femalebiased relative to the tagged population at San Miguel Island. The general framework described by Roux (1987) was an effective description of observed fur seal population recovery. Our results inform our understanding of the initiation and growth of pinniped breeding colonies.

Lee and Bond (2018) claim to quantify the ecological success of a community-based wildlife conservation intervention in Tanzania. In this reply to their article, we take issue with 3 aspects of their study. First, the study inadequately equates ecological success with increased wildlife and reduced livestock densities. Second, the study fails to adequately account for causality between the Wildlife Management Area (WMA) policy and the observed changes in wildlife and livestock densities. Third, the study misrepresents the reality of communitybased conservation in Randilen WMA. Researchers seeking to further our understanding of community-based natural resource management by evaluating its impacts must proceed with careful attention to the complex and dynamic socio-ecologies of the environments they study.

Lee and Bond (2018) quantified ecological effects associated with the establishment of the Randelin Wildlife Management Area (WMA) in the Tarangire Ecosystem. Brehony et al.'s (2018) criticisms of Lee and Bond (2018) largely stem from problematic interpretations of what we attempted and reported. Here, we respond to Brehony et al.'s 3 criticisms. First, we clarify that our concept of ecological success followed the specific terminology used in Brooks et al. (2012), thus ecological success of a WMA was defined as improved outcomes for wildlife. Second, we explain that our methods were appropriate and our findings were accurate at our scale of inference. Third, because quantitative anthropocentric analyses are lacking, the “reality” of community-based conservation in WMAs is not known.