Nightly movements of bats have been described for only a handful of species around the world. The lesser long-nosed bat (Leptonycteris yerbabuenae) is a migratory pollinator recently delisted from threatened status in Mexico and proposed in early 2017 to be delisted from endangered status in the United States. Documenting the nightly movements of these bats and how they use the desert ecosystem when they spend the summer in Sonora, Mexico, is critical for protection of their habitat and to understand food availability and landscape use. We used inert fluorescent powder to mark thousands of bats emerging from a cave used as a day roost, then examined bats captured at known foraging sites for this marker. We also marked individuals captured at foraging sites with different colors of powder that enabled us to search for dyed feces in the cave. Our results demonstrate that these bats made round trips of ca. 100 km flying from their roost cave to their nightly foraging grounds, which exceeds all distances known from other phyllostomid or nectar-feeding bats in the world.

Brazilian free-tailed bats (Tadarida brasiliensis) are one of the most widely distributed bat species in the Americas, often engaging in rapid, long-distance dispersals. Here, we document that, since ca. 2007, these bats have expanded their range into western North Carolina, eastern Tennessee, and Virginia. Reports from wildlife control professionals, wildlife rehabilitators, regional submissions of bats for rabies testing, acoustic monitoring, and the presence of T. brasiliensis in buildings and bat houses indicate that these bats are now established in year-round colonies in areas previously thought outside their range limits. The geographic distributions of many organisms are currently shifting to higher latitudes in response to changing climate. We hypothesize that a coldtolerant thermal physiology that allows these largely tropical bats to enter extended torpor contributes to the ability of T. brasiliensis to establish populations in formerly cooler regions, and propose that their rapid northward expansion is facilitated by climate change and their tendency to explore new habitats and use a wide diversity of roost sites. Because of their abundance and use of man-made structures, we anticipate that the range expansion of T. brasiliensis will have implications for public health, ecosystem services, and bat conservation.

Understanding a species' distributional limits is a necessary step for developing conservation priorities. The olinguito (Procyonidae: Bassaricyon neblina) is a recently described, medium-sized carnivoran found in Northern Andean cloud forests. Here, we provide revised distributional estimates for this species using current ecological niche modeling methods (using Maxent and bioclimatic variables), taking into account sampling bias and using updated locality information including 9 photo-vouchered citizen science records that increased the original data set by 60%. Optimal models were selected via 2 approaches: Akaike's Information Criterion corrected for small sample size (AICc) and performance on withheld data. The AICc-optimal model aligned more closely with current knowledge of the species' elevational limits. This model improves on the previously modeled distribution map for the species, especially in terms of elevational discrimination in the Central Cordillera of Colombia, where high mountain peaks are considered unsuitable. Compared with the original map, the revised map suggests more extensive suitable area in northern Colombia, possibly due to the inclusion of new citizen science records, and highlights 6 priority areas for future sampling that have no olinguito records: the northern portion of the Western Cordillera of Colombia, southern portion of the Western Cordillera of Colombia, western slopes of the Andes in southwestern Colombia, both versants of the middle portion of the Central Cordillera of Colombia, western slopes of the Andes in central and southern Ecuador, and eastern slopes of the Andes in Ecuador. This study improves knowledge of the olinguito's range, increases our understanding of this species' natural and taxonomic history, and provides an example of modeling the distributions of poorly known species with small sample sizes.

Central-place foragers in risky landscapes experience conflicting behavioral demands that they must balance by appropriately adjusting how they move throughout their home ranges. We used novel mini-GPS technology and time local convex hull analyses to determine how golden-mantled ground squirrels (Callospermophilus lateralis) use a spatiotemporal strategy to optimize foraging early in the year when individuals are in an energy deficit. By using serial correlation from GPS data, we could better understand how individuals use a time management strategy influenced by distance traveled from the burrow, location of food patches, location of refuge patches, and vegetative cover type. Individuals maximized time spent in food patches rather than in travel corridors or at the burrow, suggesting the need to forage was prioritized. Individuals spent more time at patches farther from the burrow relative to nearer patches, potentially as a function of intermittent antipredator vigilance activity and energy optimization. Individuals also had high rates of revisitation, but low visit duration, in risky canopy cover types, suggesting that individuals used areas of low vegetative understory cover to travel efficiently between highvalue food patches. Increased predation risk incurred while traveling in these open areas was possibly offset by use of refuges. Understanding these spatiotemporal movement patterns and how they relate to dynamic intrinsic and extrinsic demands has the potential to redefine optimal foraging behavior and better inform management and conservation practices.

Top-order carnivores are naturally returning, or are being reintroduced, in a number of places where they have previously been extirpated. To explore how prey species adjust their antipredator behavior in response to these predators, we measured giving-up densities (GUDs) in experimental feeding patches and time spent vigilant for greater kudu (Tragelaphus strepsiceros), sable antelope (Hippotragus niger), and warthogs (Phacochoerus africanus) before and after an introduction of wild dogs (Lycaon pictus). Before the introduction, the only predators in the system were cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus). After the release, none of the prey species changed their microhabitat preference, in that they all preferred open grasslands to mixed tree and bush-clumps and bushclumps. However, kudu and sable fed more intensively (i.e., achieved lower GUDs) and had lower vigilance in open grasslands, while reducing their feeding effort (i.e., higher GUDs) and increasing their vigilance near denser vegetation. When the wild dogs denned in the study site, potentially increasing contact with the prey species, the time kudu spent vigilant and their GUDs increased significantly across all patches, and continued to increase over time. In contrast, sable and warthogs stopped feeding from the experimental patches altogether during this period. The change in feeding intensity and vigilance levels by kudu likely reflected an additive antipredator response to both cheetahs and wild dogs, whereas sable and warthogs only responded to the increased risk from the wild dogs. Our results indicate that the addition of wild dogs influenced the foraging-safety trade-off for the 3 prey species, but that the antipredator behaviors utilized by these species to mitigate predation risk varied within the newly established 2-predator system.

Being venomous should help a predator to maximize foraging gain, reduce handling time, and hoard food. Shrews are a good model for study of the relationship between venomousness and optimal foraging as they have to be highly efficient foragers (because of extremely high energy requirements) and comprise a few venomous species. We hypothesized that venom facilitates shrews to overpower large prey and enables hoarding of (mainly large) prey in a comatose state. We compared hunting and hoarding behaviors of the venomous Neomys fodiens and the nonvenomous Sorex araneus, which were allowed to forage on live prey differing in body size. As we predicted, small invertebrates were immediately consumed by both shrew species, whereas larger ones were immobilized and hoarded. Smaller S. araneus hoarded proportionally more food than larger N. fodiens. Although different ways of prey immobilization were expected (venomous paralyzing by N. fodiens and mechanical damage by S. araneus), both species seemed to use mechanical immobilization. However, N. fodiens required significantly less time than S. araneus to subdue prey of proportionally similar sizes and this difference grew with the increase in prey mass. Only N. fodiens was able to overpower and kill frogs (but not larger toads). We concluded that the relatively weak venom of N. fodiens is helpful in overpowering and hoarding mainly medium-sized prey. Thus, venomousness helps N. fodiens to optimize its foraging as it reduces prey handling time, enables it to gain larger energy portions, and facilitates food hoarding, which reduces foraging time.

The nominal species Oligoryzomys flavescens (yellow pygmy rice rat) appears in different phylogenetic reconstructions as paraphyletic, forming a complex together with Oligoryzomys fornesi (Fornes' pygmy rice rat) or Oligoryzomys sp. B. To test if O. flavescens includes cryptic species, we used a phylogenetic and a phylogeographic approach to analyze the evolutionary relationships among the lineages of this complex and estimated their geographical distributions using niche modeling analysis. We analyzed a portion of the mitochondrial cytochrome b (Cytb), exon 1 of the Interphotoreceptor Retinoid Binding Protein (Rhp3), and intron 7 of the beta fibrinogen (Fgb) genes and estimated divergence times among lineages using a fossil-calibrated molecular clock. The Cytb phylogenetic tree shows 2 main clades: 1 clustering individuals distributed predominantly in the east of the study area and the other grouping individuals from the west, which would correspond to the subspecies O. f. occidentalis. The eastern clade includes 5 lineages: Oligoryzomys sp. B, O. fornesi, and 3 clades named O. flavescens (O. flavescens Uruguay and southeastern Brazil, O. flavescens eastern Brazil, and O. f. flavescens). The phylogenetic break between these 2 main clades occurred about 0.89 million years ago. These clades were not recovered when nuclear markers were evaluated, revealing incomplete lineage sorting and retention of ancestral polymorphisms. The spatial distributions of the ecological niche of the clades obtained in the Cytb phylogenetic reconstructions were predominantly parapatric; narrow overlapping zones between some of them were detected. Phylogeographic analyses in O. f. flavescens revealed a population expansion about 100,000 years ago, and conformed to an isolation by distance pattern. Our results, together with morphological differences previously described between populations belonging to the east and the samples referable to O. f. occidentalis, suggest that the latter should be recognized as a full species.

Phyllomys is the most species-rich genus among spiny tree rats of the family Echimyidae and includes members widely distributed throughout the Atlantic Forest of South America. Among recognized species recovered in previous studies, 4 lineages are unnamed and their taxonomic distinctness needs further investigation. Biogeographic analyses recovered an Amazonian ancestor of the basal lineage leading to living Phyllomys, suggesting ancient connections between the 2 largest South American rainforests, and presence of rainforest corridors within the central Brazilian dry biomes. Based on exhaustive taxonomic sampling of Phyllomys, applying multigene phylogenetic methods, and morphological and karyological data, we described a new species of Phyllomys from central Brazil. Geographical records from the center of the Cerrado biome of central Brazil indicate an unexpected location for the distribution of the genus, given the contrast between the physical and biological characteristics of the Cerrado and Atlantic Forest habitats. Contrary to previous studies, the analysis of the ancestral geographic range performed here suggests a Cerrado ancestral distribution for Phyllomys during the late Miocene. This result favors the hypothesis of a past link between the Amazon and Atlantic Forest in central Brazil, through the region occupied today by the dry Cerrado, and that forest expansions and contractions may have occurred in Brazilian dry biomes over the course of the Tertiary.

Many carnivore species, particularly felids, are sensitive to land use changes and may disappear from landscapes with reduced natural habitat and increased fragmentation. The jaguar (Panthera onca) is highly affected by these factors and is particularly endangered in the Atlantic Forest (AF) of South America, one of the most threatened biomes in the world. We used noninvasive fecal sampling and microsatellite markers to investigate the genetic diversity of jaguars in one of the last remnant populations of this species in the entire coastal AF. This section of the biome is highly fragmented. We observed low levels of genetic diversity (H_O = 0.621, H_E = 0.532, AR = 3.195), and estimated a small effective size for the population (N_e = 7.9 individuals). We performed comparative analyses incorporating data from previously surveyed populations located farther inland (interior AF), revealing that the coastal population studied shows significant genetic differentiation. Our results support a scenario of anthropogenic, drift-induced differentiation among jaguar populations in small AF fragments, affecting both the interior and coastal components of this biome. Despite its low diversity, we detected putatively unique alleles present in the coastal population, supporting its importance in the context of maintaining the remaining genetic variability of jaguars in the AF. Our results highlight the urgent need to implement coordinated conservation actions for jaguars in this highly impacted biome, including management interventions that foster the restoration of genetic connectivity among isolated remnant populations.

We examined patterns of genetic variation and diversity of extant pygmy rabbit (Brachylagus idahoensis) populations across the species' current range in Nevada and California. Our aims were to determine population genetic structure and levels of diversity across the southern portion of the species' range. We genotyped 13 microsatellite loci from 194 fecal samples collected across 14 localities. Our Bayesian cluster analyses found 2 genetically distinct groups: 1 in the Mono Basin of California and the other encompassing all remaining Nevada Great Basin populations. Considering only the Nevada Great Basin group, we found 4 minimally divergent groups that overlap spatially with many individuals maintaining composite genomes with representation from multiple genetic groups. On average, the Mono Basin populations maintain lower levels of genetic diversity than the Nevada Great Basin populations as measured by both heterozygosity and numbers of alleles. The Mono Basin contains the only populations of pygmy rabbits remaining in California. Given their geographic isolation from other known populations and their genetic distinction, these remnant, peripheral populations warrant special attention to ensure maintenance of genetic variation and continued viability.

Fire is an ecologically important process in many habitats. Increases in the frequency and intensity of wildfires due to anthropogenic activity or future changes in the global climate are suspected to impact heavily on components of the biota in fire-dependent landscapes, but there is almost no knowledge of how changes to fire regimes interact with other stressors such as drying environments. We used livetrapping techniques to investigate the effects of wildfire and drought on the abundance of 3 species of small mammals in coastal woodland in southeastern Australia. We used a generalized linear mixed effects model design to compare 4 years of post-fire trapping results with pre-fire data on both burned and unburned sites. Numbers of all small mammal species were declining due to drought prior to an extensive wildfire. Wildfire significantly exacerbated the decline in abundance of small mammals in the year after fire. A return to wetter climatic conditions was accompanied by a recovery in small mammal numbers, which was faster in unburned sites than burned sites. Our results demonstrate a strong linkage between climatic conditions, fire, and mammal assemblages, and emphasize the need for long-term research to disentangle the interactive effects of these factors on wildlife.

The Jarman–Bell principle seeks to explain why smaller herbivore species tend to select higher-quality forage (high protein and high fiber digestibility) than larger herbivore species. This principle may also provide insight into intraspecific differences in resource use in species with pronounced sexual size dimorphism. We examined the relationship between body mass and diet quality in a sexually dimorphic macropodid community comprising larger (17–55 kg) eastern and western gray kangaroos, Macropus giganteus and M. fuliginosus, and smaller (7–23 kg) red-necked and swamp wallabies, M. rufogriseus and Wallabia bicolor. We determined diet composition through microhistological analysis of fecal pellets, and then assessed diet quality by measuring available nitrogen and fiber (cellulose and hemicellulose) in the plants consumed. We predicted that the smaller species and smaller individuals within species would consume the highest-quality diets. The concentration of fiber consumed differed significantly among species; available nitrogen concentration did not. As predicted, the lowest-fiber diet was consumed by a wallaby (small species) and the highest-fiber diet was consumed by a kangaroo (large species). Contrary to predictions, we detected no sex-based differences in diet quality. However, large male red-necked wallabies consumed diets containing harder-to-digest fiber than small male red-necked wallabies. Body mass and diet type were related between and within species. However, body mass did not account for all differences in diet quality between species; swamp wallabies consumed less fiber than similarly sized red-necked wallabies. These differences are likely related to other adaptations that allow swamp wallabies to better tolerate tannin-rich browse-dominated diets.

Energy and nutrient availability are important determinants of fetal and offspring development. Given high energy and nutrient expenditure during pregnancy and lactation, foraging strategies and choices of specific food items are critical for survival of both mother and offspring. We analyzed dietary variation and consumption of nitrogen-rich and calcium-rich foods during different developmental stages in Seba's short-tailed fruit bat (Carollia perspicillata). Dietary analysis was carried out on fecal samples from males and nonpregnant, early pregnant, late pregnant, and lactating females at Macaregua Cave in Santander, Colombia. Diets were similar among males, nonpregnant females, and pregnant females, but lactating females exhibited statistically distinguishable diets. Males and pregnant females displayed a generalist diet, eating a wide variety of items, whereas nonpregnant and lactating females had narrower diets. Nitrogen-rich items, such as Piper (Piperales: Piperaceae; pepper plants) and insects, were not prevalent in the diet of pregnant bats, whereas spiked pepper exceeded expected frequencies in the diets of lactating bats. Calcium-rich Ficus (Rosales: Moraceae; figs) was rarely found in the diets of lactating or pregnant bats. Increased calcium requirements associated with lactation may therefore be satisfied through other avenues.

The impact of increasing numbers of livestock on wild ungulates has been a concern in Mongolia. We used DNA barcoding via next generation sequencing to reveal detailed food habits and assess the extent of potential resource competition among ungulates in the desert steppe of southern Mongolia. From feces of 2 wild (Mongolian gazelle [Procapra gutturosa], Asiatic wild ass [Equus hemionus]) and 4 domestic (sheep [Ovis aries], goat [Capra hircus], horse [Equus caballus], camel [Camelus bactrianus]) ungulates collected in June 2014, we identified 25 plant families (39 to genus and 18 to species). Dietary diversity was the highest for sheep (Levins' standardized index = 0.351), followed by goats (0.342), and the lowest for gazelles (0.220). Gazelles had a high dietary overlap with goats (Pianka's index = 0.654) and sheep (0.630). Wild asses had the highest dietary overlap with horses (0.847), followed by goats (0.727) and sheep (0.719). The high dietary overlaps may be explained by similar digestive systems and body sizes among gazelles, sheep, and goats and between wild asses and horses, and by the high dietary diversity of sheep and goats. The present study shows more diverse food compositions than previous studies, suggesting that because of the high dietary diversity of sheep and goats and their overlap with wild species, their increasing number is a potential risk for the survival of wild ungulates.

In Tanzania, community-based natural resource management of wildlife occurs through the creation of Wildlife Management Areas (WMAs). WMAs consist of multiple villages designating land for wildlife conservation, and sharing a portion of subsequent tourism revenues. Nineteen WMAs are currently operating, encompassing 7% of Tanzania's land area, with 19 more WMAs planned. The ecological success or failure of WMAs for wildlife conservation has yet to be quantified. We defined ecological success in this case as significantly greater densities of wildlife and significantly lower densities of livestock in the WMA relative to the control site, after the WMA was established. We used 4 years of distance sampling surveys conducted 6 times per year for wild and domestic ungulates to quantify wildlife and livestock densities before and after the establishment and implementation of management efforts at Randilen WMA, relative to a control site on adjacent land of similar vegetation and habitat types. We documented similarity between the sites before WMA establishment, when both sites were managed by the same authority. After WMA establishment, we documented significantly higher densities of resident wildlife (giraffes and dik-diks) and lower densities of cattle in the WMA, relative to the control site, indicating short-term ecological success. Continued monitoring is necessary to determine longer-term effects, and to evaluate management decisions.

The Madrean sky islands of North America, in southern Arizona and adjacent Sonora, harbor a great diversity of vertebrates, but data about the distribution and abundance of mammal species in this region are needed to develop strategies for their management and conservation. We used camera traps to record medium and large mammals in 4 sky islands in the state of Sonora, Mexico. We compared species richness and diversity of the 25 species detected: 1) within and outside a natural protected area; 2) according to land use (natural protected area, private property, or conservation area); 3) according to the presence or absence of cattle; and 4) among 7 monitored sites. We found no differences in richness, diversity, and composition of species in our comparative analyses, suggesting homogeneity of the communities. This homogeneity could be the result of the direct or indirect influences of past human impacts in the region, given that federal protection, type of land use, and ranching did not influence the community of medium and large mammals. We discuss the importance of maintaining sites dedicated exclusively to conservation in the region, as well as promoting management at unprotected sites to make predators compatible with livestock and agricultural production.

Survey techniques available to sample mammals have multiplied during the last decades. They offer new opportunities for sampling and monitoring populations, but before widespread use they need to be validated and calibrated to more traditional approaches. We conducted a quantitative assessment of hair tubes designed to monitor common small mammals by comparing results to live-trapping data. Hair tubes are inexpensive, easy to use, and noninvasive, which offers benefits regarding animal ethics. We considered the shape of the tube, application in field conditions, and validated hair-tube results in 3 different habitats based on experimental and field sampling in 2 countries. Tube size selected species entering into the tubes, with shrews detected in small tubes only and rodents in larger tubes. The number of tubes visited (with hair sample) was proportional to the number of individuals captured in live traps. Overall, tubes performed better than traps, detecting individuals where traps did not, making this technique promising for inventory of rare species. The sampling pattern was robust across wood, grassland, and cultivated field habitats and across seasons, which suggests that the proportion of hair tubes visited is a robust indicator of relative abundance of small mammals. In the context of population studies, hair tubes cannot replace trapping because the identification of species or individuals from hair collected in tubes is difficult and costly. We recommend combining hair tubes with livetrapping for increased efficiency and before species identification based on DNA sampling is applied to large-scale population studies.

Wild mammals are known to survive injuries that result in skeletal abnormalities. Quantifying and comparing skeletal injuries among species can provide insight into the factors that cause skeletal injuries and enable survival following an injury. We documented the prevalence and location of structural bone abnormalities in a community of 7 small mammal species inhabiting the White Mountains of New Hampshire. These species differ in locomotion type and levels of intraspecific aggression. Overall, the majority of injuries were to the ribs or caudal vertebrae. Incidence of skeletal injuries was highest in older animals, indicating that injuries accumulate over a lifetime. Compared to species with ambulatory locomotion, those with more specialized (semi-fossorial, saltatorial, and scansorial) locomotion exhibited fewer skeletal abnormalities in the arms and legs, which we hypothesize is a result of a lesser ability to survive limb injuries. Patterns of skeletal injuries in shrews (Soricidae) were consistent with intraspecific aggression, particularly in males, whereas skeletal injuries in rodents (Rodentia) were more likely accidental or resulting from interactions with predators. Our results demonstrate that both the incidence and pattern of skeletal injuries vary by species and suggest that the ability of an individual to survive a specific skeletal injury depends on its severity and location as well as the locomotor mode of the species involved.

Armadillo pups rapidly grow a bony carapace, suggesting a large transfer of calcium and phosphorus from mother to pups via milk. Because Ca and P in milk are bound in casein protein micelles, we predicted armadillo milk to be high in protein content. Milk samples (n = 25) from 10 lactating nine-banded armadillos (Dasypus novemcinctus) collected at days 1–6, 14–15, 33–38, and 49–51 after birth were assayed for macronutrient composition (water, fat, protein, sugar, ash, Ca, and P). Gross energy (GE) was calculated from protein, sugar, and fat. Protein concentration (8–11%) was the highest of the milk solids at all time points, and ash (total mineral) values increased from 1.6% to 3.6% and were higher than sugar values (2.4%) after 1 month. Calcium concentration increased from 0.4% to over 1.0% by 1 month of lactation. Calcium and phosphorus were strongly correlated with milk protein (r = 0.796 and 0.815, respectively; P < 0.001). Protein contributed the majority of milk GE over the first 2 weeks of lactation (51%) and was equal to fat after 1 month (both about 47% of GE). The proportion of GE from sugar declined from 14.5% to 6.6%. We suggest that a milk high in protein was an ancestral trait for armadillos that allowed the evolution of a bony carapace by enabling large amounts of Ca and P to be transferred via casein micelles. Based on data from giant anteater (Myrmecophaga tridactyla) milk, a highprotein milk may be ancestral to all Xenarthrans, but this suggestion awaits confirmation from data on the milk of sloths. We suggest that armadillo pups likely catabolize a significant amount of milk protein for metabolic energy.