We describe Myotis midastactus sp. nov. from the Bolivian savanna on the basis of differences in fur color, and cranial and external features that unquestionably distinguish it from all other Neotropical Myotis. This new species is morphologically allied to M. simus Thomas, 1901 and other species in the M. ruber group. Myotis midastactus is endemic to Bolivia, where it occurs with 6 congeners—albescens, dinellii, keaysi, nigricans, riparius, and oxyotus. Previously identified as M. simus, M. midastactus is in syntopy with M. nigricans and M. riparius in the department of Santa Cruz, and there is no evidence that true M. simus occurs in Bolivia.

Chrysopteron Jentink, 1910 is 1 of the 7 subgenera of Myotis Kaup, 1829 recognized by Tate that traditionally comprises Asian and African species characterized by conspicuously parti-colored wing membranes. Definition of Myotis subgenera has long challenged taxonomists and prior to the present study the systematic status of numerous forms within Chrysopteron remained unclear. Following examination of material (including available type specimens) in 21 European, North American, and Asian collections, and using morphological (external, cranial, and dental characters) and genetic data, we evaluate the validity of the Chrysopteron subgenus, revise the taxonomy of the named Asian forms, and review their distinguishing characters, distribution, and taxonomic history. We argue that Chrysopteron is an available name for a monophyletic “Ethiopian clade” recovered with high support in our analyses, which comprises species characterized by striking reddish or yellowish dorsal fur that strongly differentiates them from congeners. We also determine that M. formosus sensu lato contains several morphologically distinct forms, some of which occur in sympatry and some in widely separated localities. A morphological key is provided for all Asian species of Chrysopteron revealed by our study: M. bartelsi Jentink, 1910 (Java and Bali), M. formosus (Hodgson, 1835) (Afghanistan, India, Nepal, China, Taiwan, and Vietnam), M. hermani Thomas, 1923 (Sumatra, Thailand, and Malaysia), M. rufoniger (Tomes, 1858) (Korea, Japan, China, Taiwan, Laos, and Vietnam), M. rufopictus (Waterhouse, 1845) (Philippines), and M. weberi (Jentink, 1890) (Sulawesi).

We explore potential geographic variation in the pathogen-mediated selective pressures acting on major histocompatibility complex (MHC) loci in the subterranean rodent Ctenomys talarum, evaluating the impact of differences in parasite load between 2 populations (Mar de Cobo [MdC] and Necochea [NC]) on immunogenetic variation and selection on MHC genes in this species. Because Ctenomys from NC face lower parasite load and presumably weaker pathogen-mediated selection on MHC, we expected to find a weaker correlation between MHC variation and parasite load or immunocompetence, or both, in this population compared to that at MdC. MHC-associated cues are used in other species of rodents as kinship markers to avoid inbreeding, and because kinship structure is less pronounced in NC, we predicted that use of MHC-associated cues in mate choice would be less apparent in this population. We characterized MHC variation in NC as a function of parasite load and immunocompetence and compared our results with previous findings for MdC. The 2 populations were sampled across different, but consecutive, years. Using coinertia analyses, we found a significant positive association between a specific DRB allele and intensity of infection by fleas in NC. We explored the use of MHC-associated cues in mate choice in NC and found support for both the “good-genes” and the “genetic compatibility” hypotheses. As expected, associations between MHC and parasite load or immunocompetence were weaker in NC. Evidence indicated that females in NC selected for males with lower MHC diversity. This suggests that parasite-driven selection acting directly on MHC genes seems to be greater for the population facing higher parasite load. However, parasite-driven selection mediated by mate choice may not only be influenced by levels of parasite diversity in the population but also by characteristics of the mating system.

Se exploró la variación geográfica potencial en las presiones selectivas mediadas por patógenos sobre los loci de Complejo Principal de Histocompatibilidad (MHC) en el roedor subterráneo Ctenomys talarum, evaluando las diferencias en cargas parasitarias entre dos poblaciones (Mar de Cobo [MdC] y Necochea [NC]) con el fin de determinar de qué forma la variación espacial en este atributo influye sobre la variación y selección en los genes de MHC en esta especie. Dado que los tuco-tucos de NC enfrentan menores cargas parasitarias, se esperaba encontrar una correlación más débil entre la variación de MHC y la carga parasitaria/inmunocompetencia en esta población comparada con MdC. También se predijo que el uso de pistas asociadas al MHC en el proceso de elección de pareja fuera menos evidente en NC. Caracterizamos la variación de MHC en NC en función de la carga parasitaria y de la inmunocompetencia y comparamos nuestros resultados con datos previos de MdC. Ambas poblaciones fueron muestreadas a través de años diferentes, pero consecutivos. Utilizando análisis de co-inercia, se encontró una asociación significativamente positive entre un alelo específico de DRB y la intensidad de infección por pulgas en NC. Analizamos el uso de pistas asociadas al MHC en la elección de pareja en NC y encontramos soporte para las hipótesis de “buenos genes” y “compatibilidad genética.” De acuerdo a lo esperado, las asociaciones entre MHC y carga parasitaria o inmunocompetencia fueron menos frecuentes en NC, la población en la cual los tuco-tucos enfrentan menores cargas parasitarias. La evidencia indicó que las hembras en NC escogieron a machos con baja diversidad de MHC. Esto sugiere que la selección mediada por parásitos que actúa directamente sobre los genes de MHC parece ser de mayor magnitud en la población que enfrenta mayores cargas parasitarias. Sin embargo, la selección mediada por parásitos a través de la elección de pareja puede no

Wide-ranging species with large spatial requirements can rarely be supported in protected areas alone, yet most species face greater threats outside reserves. The need to consider conservation of large mammals in landscape mosaics is very relevant to the Brazilian Cerrado, which is the world's most biologically diverse and threatened savanna. The maned wolf (Chrysocyon brachyurus), South America's largest canid, has been proposed as a flagship species for the Cerrado. The majority of the maned wolf's distribution overlaps croplands, whereas < 4% of its range overlaps with a protected area. To understand how landscape use influences maned wolf physiological health and likelihood of persistence, we collected scat samples (n = 974) from a 4,000-km² area encompassing national park, cropland, cattle pasture, and remnant vegetation. From these samples, we measured fecal hormone metabolites of glucocorticoids (indicative of stress), thyroid hormone (indicative of nutritional status), and progesterone (indicative of reproductive health). Glucocorticoid metabolite concentrations increased with distance from natural habitat patches and during times of peak harvest activity. Thyroid hormone metabolite levels were higher in areas with more cropland, indicating good nutritional status. Progesterone metabolite levels in females were higher inside than outside the park, suggesting females residing in the park have higher reproductive success. Results indicate that maned wolves make extensive use of the landscape matrix and are able to tolerate modified agricultural fields despite being sensitive to disturbance. Ensuring their conservation for the long-term will require increased monitoring and incentivizing conservation on private lands that compose much of the Cerrado.

Espécies com grandes requerimentos de área raramente podem ser protegidas unicamente em unidades de conservação, pois muitas delas enfrentam significativas ameaças fora de tais espaços. A necessidade de se considerar a conservação de mamíferos de grande porte em mosaicos na paisagem é bastante relevante no Cerrado brasileiro, que é considerado a mais rica e ameaçada savana do planeta. O lobo-guará (Chrysocyon brachyurus), maior canídeo da América do Sul, tem sido considerado como uma bandeira de conservação para o Cerrado. A maior parte da distribuição do lobo-guará é sobreposta com áreas de cultivo, sendo menos de 4% efetivamente protegida. Com o intuito de investigar como o uso da paisagem influencia a saúde fisiológica do lobo-guará e sua probabilidade de persistência, coletamos amostras de fezes em uma área de 4.000 km², que abrangeu um parque nacional, áreas de cultivo, pastagens e remanescentes de vegetação natural. A partir dessas amostras, mensuramos os níveis de glucocorticóides (indicadores de estress), hormônio tireoidiano (indicador do estado nutricional) e progesterona (indicadora da saúde reprodutiva). A concentração de glucocorticóide foi maior com o aumento da distância de áreas nativas e também com os picos de atividade de colheita da safra regional. Os níveis de hormônio tireoidiano foram maiores em áreas com cultivos, aspecto que indica uma melhor condição alimentar. O nível de progesterona das fêmeas foi mais elevado dentro do parque do que em seu entorno, sugerindo que as fêmeas dentro da unidade podem ter maior sucesso de reprodução. Os resultados indicam que o lobo-guará faz uso extensivo da matriz de paisagem e é capaz de tolerar áreas modificadas por cultivos, embora seja sensível aos eventos de perturbação. Assegurar que a espécie seja mantida a longo prazo requer um aumento no monitoramento e no estímulo à sua proteção em propriedades privadas, que compreendem a maior parte do Cerrado.

A long-term study to compare harbor seal (Phoca vitulina) survival rates between 2 study areas was conducted in Alaska, in Glacier Bay (GB) and Prince William Sound (PWS). Very-high-frequency (VHF) transmitters with 3.5- to 5-year batteries were subcutaneously implanted into 277 harbor seals; 122 in PWS from 2003 to 2005, and 155 in GB from 2004 to 2006. The presence of radiotagged seals was remotely monitored using VHF data-loggers, which transmitted data via the Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite (GOES) system. The GOES site is administered by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, National Environmental Satellite Data and Information Service; data were accessible to researchers via telnet. Initial data-logging was plagued with ambient electronic interference (“noise”); subsequent equipment revisions substantially reduced the noise and resulted in 8,129 total “seal-days” (≥ 1 detection calendar day⁻¹ seal⁻¹) of telemetry detections (X̄ = 29 days/seal ± 3.4 SE; maximum 424 days spanning 4.15 years). Although 84% of radiotagged seals were detected at least once during the year they were radiotagged, the proportion of tagged seals detected in subsequent years dropped to 59%, 28%, 0.9%, and 3% in the 1st through the 4th year, respectively. Tag failure and tag rejection, including 1 tag rejected 11.75 months after implantation surgery, were documented. There was almost no evidence of health problems at the time of implanting the tags in the harbor seals. Survey effort outside the study areas did not detect evidence of high emigration rates. Although subcutaneously implanted transmitters could be radiotracked during and after molt and the long battery life provided multiyear data on a subset of individual seals, this method of subcutaneously implanting radiotags was not effective for assessing the long-term survival rate of free-ranging harbor seals.

North American water shrews, which have traditionally included Sorex alaskanus, S. bendirii, and S. palustris, are widely distributed through Nearctic boreal forests and adapted for life in semiaquatic environments. Molecular mitochondrial signatures for these species have recorded an evolutionary history with variable levels of regional divergence, suggesting a strong role of Quaternary environmental change in speciation processes. We expanded molecular analyses, including more-comprehensive rangewide sampling of specimens representing North American water shrew taxa, except S. alaskanus, and sequencing of 4 independent loci from the nuclear and mitochondrial genomes. We investigated relative divergence of insular populations along the North Pacific Coast, and newly recognized diversity from southwestern montane locations, potentially representing refugial isolates. Congruent independent genealogies, lack of definitive evidence for contemporary gene flow, and high support from coalescent species trees indicated differentiation of 4 major geographic lineages over multiple glacial cycles of the late Quaternary, similar to a growing number of boreal taxa. Limited divergence of insular populations suggested colonization following the last glacial. Characterization of southwestern montane diversity will require further sampling but divergence over multiple loci is indicative of a relictual sky-island fauna. We have reviewed and revised North American water shrew taxonomy including the recognition of 3 species within what was previously known as S. palustris. The possibility of gene flow between most distantly related North American water shrew lineages coupled with unresolved early diversification of this group and other sibling species reflects a complex but potentially productive system for investigating speciation processes.

The diversity and distribution of mammals in the American tropics remain incompletely known. We describe a new species of small-eared shrew (Soricidae, Cryptotis) from the Lacandona rain forest, Chiapas, southern Mexico. The new species is distinguished from other species of Cryptotis on the basis of a unique combination of pelage coloration, size, dental, cranial, postcranial, and external characters, and genetic distances. It appears most closely related to species in the Cryptotis nigrescens species group, which occurs from southern Mexico to montane regions of Colombia. This discovery is particularly remarkable because the new species is from a low-elevation habitat (approximately 90 m), whereas most shrews in the region are restricted to higher elevations, typically > 1,000 m. The only known locality for the new shrew is in one of the last areas in southern Mexico where relatively undisturbed tropical vegetation is still found. The type locality is protected by the Mexican government as part of the Yaxchilán Archaeological Site on the border between Mexico and Guatemala.

La diversidad y distribución de las musarañas en el trópico americano son, aún, parcialmente conocidas. Aquí presentamos la descripción de una nueva especie de musaraña de orejas cortas (Soricidae, Cryptotis) con base en dos ejemplares de museo colectados en la selva Lacandona, Chiapas, en el sur de Mexico. La nueva especie se puede distinguir de otras especies del género por una combinación de características que incluye la coloración del pelaje, el tamaño, caracteres dentales, craneales, postcraneales y distancias genéticas. El nuevo taxón podría estar relacionado al grupo de especies Cryptotis nigrescens, cuyas especies habitan desde el sur de Mexico hasta las montañas de Colombia. El descubrimiento es particularmente notable ya que la especie nueva habita en tierras bajas (cerca de los 90 m), mientras que la mayoría de las especies en la región están restringidas a elevaciones mayores a los 1000 m. La única localidad para la nueva especie descrita se ubica en la selva Lacandona, una de las últimas áreas al sur de Mexico con vegetación tropical que permanecen sin alterar. La localidad tipo se encuentra en una zona protegida por el gobierno federal mexicano, ya que es parte de la Zona Arqueológica Yaxchilán, ubicada en la frontera entre Mexico y Guatemala.

The southern pocket gopher, Thomomys umbrinus, currently contains 17 subspecies distributed from southeastern Arizona and southwestern New Mexico southward into the Trans-Mexico Volcanic Belt (TMVB) of central Mexico. Here we reevaluate relationships within this species, which, based on previous studies, is composed of 3 genetically divergent clades. Multilocus phylogenetic analyses uphold these clades (Northern Desert, Central Plateau, and TMVB) as well as the monophyly of T. umbrinus with respect to the 3 other species in the T. umbrinus complex (T. atrovarius, T. nayarensis, and T. sheldoni). Reanalysis of published allozyme data shows a pattern of isolation by distance consistent with the hypothesis of gene flow among the 3 T. umbrinus clades. Species tree analyses of these clades reveal 4 divergent lineages (2 within the TMVB clade), which we recognize herein at the subspecies level. Cranial morphometrics show a moderate level of morphological separation among these clades in multivariate space. The present center of diversity of the T. umbrinus species group is in the southern Sierra Madre Occidental, which also appears to be the center of origin of the T. umbrinus complex. A synonymy of T. umbrinus is provided.

La tuza sureña, Thomomys umbrinus, actualmente esta compuesta de 17 subespecies distribuidas desde el sureste de Arizona y suroeste de Nuevo México hacia el sur hasta el Cinturón Volcánico Trans-Mexicano (TMVB) en el centro de México. Aquí reevaluamos las relaciones dentro de esta especie, la cual, basados en estudios previos, esta compuesta de 3 clados genéticamente divergentes. Análisis filogenéticos multilocus sostienen estos 3 clados (Desierto del Norte, Altiplanicie Central, y TMVB), asi como la monofilia de T. umbrinus en relación con las otras 3 especies en el complejo T. umbrinus (T. atrovarius, T. nayarensis, y T. sheldoni). El reanálisis de datos de alozimas publicados muestran un patrón de aislamiento por distancia, el cual es consistente con la hipótesis de flujo génico entre los 3 clados de T. umbrinus. Los análisis de árbol de especie de estos clados revelan 4 linajes divergentes (2 dentro del clado del TMVB), los cuales reconocemos aquí a nivel subespecie. La morfometría craneal muestra un nivel moderado de separación morfológica entre estos clados en el espacio multivariado. El centro actual de diversidad del grupo de especies de T. umbrinus es en el sur de la Sierra Madre Occidental, que también parece ser el centro de origen del complejo T. umbrinus. Una sinonimia para T. umbrinus se provee.

As the only native insular Newfoundland, Canada, canid from the extinction of the wolf in the 1930s to the recent arrival of coyotes, the red fox (Vulpes vulpes deletrix) poses interesting questions about genetic distinctiveness and the postglacial colonization history of the island's depauperate mammalian fauna. Here, we characterize genetic variability at the mitochondrial control region in 189 foxes from the island of Newfoundland, Prince Edward Island, and Labrador. We identified 8 haplotypes (3 new to this study) defined by 11 polymorphic sites, with an average pairwise sequence divergence of ∼0.003 and haplotypic diversity of 0.56 among localities. A pairwise distribution of control region sequence differences, rho estimate of divergence time, and tests of neutrality (Fu's F_S and Tajima's D) are weakly consistent with a population expansion ∼9,000 years ago, correlating with retreat of glacial ice from the region. Haplotype composition reflects primarily the Eastern subclade of Aubry and colleagues and supports Aubry's 2-refugia hypothesis that indigenous red foxes in North America are derived from disparate refugia isolated during the Wisconsinan glaciation. Haplotype identity and pattern of population differentiation suggest recolonization of the island of Newfoundland via a northern glacial refugium via Quebec or Labrador rather than an Atlantic or southern route, but provide no mitochondrial genetic evidence to support differentiation of this population of foxes along subspecies lines. We establish a baseline for continued investigations of population demography, genetic structure, and adaptive genetic diversity in island Newfoundland red foxes, a population of interest from both ecological and wildlife disease perspectives.

Species delimitation using mitochondrial sequences aims to identify species as morphological expertise and biodiversity both decline. Species delimitation in animals relies completely or in part on 2 criteria: genetic distance and reciprocal monophyly. Using coalescent simulations of populations experiencing continuous and interrupted gene flow we show that these commonly applied criteria incur both high false-positive and high false-negative error rates in species delimitation when dispersal is sex biased, as it is in most mammals. The combination of distance- and topology-based criteria will incur false-positive error rates well above 5% when ancestral effective population sizes are large and when population structure has been in place for 10,000 years or more. This effect persists even with a subtle bias in dispersal of 1 : 4 female : males dispersing in each generation. High false-positive error rates in genetic distances can be overcome by correcting for within-population sequence divergence. We argue that mitochondrial species delimitation requires additional supporting data on ecology, behavior, and morphology, as well as within-population sampling of multiple individuals to ensure that sex-biased dispersal is not the basis for the species limits proposed.

The pocket gopher Orthogeomys lanius (Elliot, 1905), unknown to science since the first 2 specimens were captured in 1904, is rediscovered in the mountains south and east of Pico de Orizaba in Veracruz, Mexico. Mitochondrial DNA extracted from the skin of the 109-year-old paratype specimen is nearly identical (0.3% cytochrome-b divergence) to that extracted from 2 newly captured specimens. Phylogenetic analyses of the complete cytochrome-b gene and 2 nuclear genes show O. lanius to be sister to the geographically widespread species O. hispidus. O. lanius has a diploid number of 44 and a fundamental number of 84, and the species is easily distinguished from O. hispidus by its larger size and dense, woolly pelage. Our observations suggest that O. lanius is reasonably abundant in a roughly 1,000-km² region of central Veracruz, where it persists in forested refugia often too steep and rugged for cultivation by humans.

La tuza Orthogeomys lanius (Elliot, 1905), desconocida para la ciencia desde que los 2 primeros ejemplares fueron capturados en 1904, se redescubrió en montañas del sur y este del Pico de Orizaba en Veracruz, México. El DNA mitocondrial extraído de la piel de el ejemplar paratipo de 109 años de antigüedad es casi idéntico (0.3% de divergencia en el gen citocromo b) al que se extrajo de 2 ejemplares capturados recientemente. El análisis filogenético del gen citocromo b completo y 2 genes nucleares mostró que O. lanius es la especie hermana de O. hispidus, especie ampliamente distribuída. O. lanius tiene un número cromosómico diploide de 44, un número fundamental de 84 y se distingue fácilmente de O. hispidus por su mayor tamaño y pelaje más largo y denso. Nuestras observaciones sugieren que O. lanius es relativamente abundante en un área de aproximadamente 1,000 km² de la región central de Veracruz, donde persiste en refugios boscosos por lo regular muy inclinados y de superficie irregular para ser utilizados como campos agrícolas.

The Wyoming pocket gopher (Thomomys clusius) is among the least understood species of Geomyidae. It was petitioned for listing under the United States Endangered Species Act in 2007, but found not warranted for listing because of the poor state of knowledge. As of 2008, it was only known from a handful of specimens and a coarse, qualitative assessment of the landscape from which they were collected. To begin resolving this problem, we investigated the distribution and habitat use of T. clusius by conducting pocket gopher surveys across its known range and the adjacent, previously unsurveyed, landscape. We compared habitat features at sites occupied by T. clusius to unoccupied sites and those occupied by the common northern pocket gopher (T. talpoides). We found that T. clusius was uncommon throughout a very limited range that was completely encompassed by T. talpoides, and that habitat occupied by the 2 species differed. In contrast to T. talpoides, T. clusius was more restricted to areas with Gardner's saltbush, often in combination with other moderately halophytic species typically found in relatively flat areas of fine-textured soil. Its restricted range, relatively rarity, and association with limited habitat all suggest that T. clusius could be sensitive to habitat change. As such, monitoring populations in the face of impending changes may be important to its long-term conservation.

The Eurasian otter (Lutra lutra) is recovering from well-documented population declines that occurred during the 20th century. Little is known about the genetic impact of these declines in northern Britain and the current understanding of otter genetic structure in Britain is incomplete. This study reexamines genetic structure in Scotland, one of the otter's major strongholds in the United Kingdom, and combines data with a published microsatellite data set from the remainder of the United Kingdom to produce the 1st comprehensive assessment of genetic structure across the entirety of mainland Britain. We show that there is a remarkable contrast in genetic structure of otters in northern Britain compared to the south. Population fragmentation and high levels of genetic structure were typical of southern Britain, whereas in the north we observed a virtually panmictic population. These results imply very different demographic histories of otters in these 2 regions. Our findings also suggest a more favorable environment for the Eurasian otter in recent times in the north of the United Kingdom, possibly linked to human population density and anthropogenic habitat impacts. This study therefore provides a complete description of population genetics of the Eurasian otter in the United Kingdom, and allows inferences to be made regarding the relative importance of landscape characteristics on the recovery of otter populations.

The Neotropical river otter Lontra longicaudis is a top predator in many South and Central American aquatic freshwater systems. Its current category in the International Union for Conservation of Nature is “data deficient,” which makes it imperative to determine the appropriate conservation status. We applied species distribution models to build a map of habitat suitabilities, and to identify possible anthropogenic factors that affect the presence of L. longicaudis in the Lower Delta of the Paraná River in the Southern Cone of South America. Presence/absence of L. longicaudis was obtained using 3 methodologies (sign surveys, camera traps, and interviews) and 15 environmental predictors. Habitat suitability was higher in areas with polders built for forestry, and lower in areas with human settlements and boat traffic. At present, geographic isolation and control of access on private land and reserves appear to be effective at protecting wildlife in the Paraná Delta. Our study demonstrates that species distribution models can be used for rapidly evaluating potential threats to wildlife.

El lobito de río Lontra longicaudis es un depredador acuático de muchos sistemas de agua dulce de América Central y del Sur. Su categoría actual en la Unión Internacional para la Conservación de la Naturaleza es “datos insuficientes”, lo que hace imprescindible determinar el estado de conservación adecuado. Se aplicaron modelos de distribución de especies para construir un mapa de idoneidades de hábitat, y para identificar posibles factores antrópicos que influyen en la presencia de L. longicaudis en el Bajo Delta del Río Paraná en el Cono Sur de América del Sur. Se obtuvo la presencia / ausencia de L. longicaudis utilizando tres métodos (se midieron las encuestas signos, trampas de cámaras y entrevistas), y 15 predictores ambientales. La idoneidad del hábitat fue mayor en las zonas con diques construidos para la silvicultura y baja en las zonas con asentamientos humanos y tráfico de embarcaciones. En la actualidad, el aislamiento geográfico y el control en terrenos privados y las reservas parecen ser eficaces en la protección de la fauna en el delta del Paraná. Este estudio muestra que los modelos de distribución de especies se pueden utilizar para evaluar rápidamente las posibles amenazas a la vida silvestre.

For herbivores, nutrient intake is limited by the relatively low nutritional quality of plants and high concentrations of potentially toxic defensive compounds (plant secondary metabolites [PSMs]) produced by many plants. In response to phytochemical challenges, some herbivores selectively forage on plants with higher nutrient and lower PSM concentrations relative to other plants. Pygmy rabbits (Brachylagus idahoensis) are dietary specialists that feed on sagebrush (Artemisia spp.) and forage on specific plants more than others within a foraging patch. We predicted that the plants with evidence of heavy foraging (browsed plants) would be of higher dietary quality than plants that were not browsed (unbrowsed). We used model selection to determine which phytochemical variables best explained the difference between browsed and unbrowsed plants. Higher crude protein increased the odds that plants would be browsed by pygmy rabbits and the opposite was the case for certain PSMs. Additionally, because pygmy rabbits can occupy foraging patches (burrows) for consecutive years, their browsing may influence the nutritional and PSM constituents of plants at the burrows. In a post hoc analysis, we did not find a significant relationship between phytochemical concentrations, browse status, and burrow occupancy length. We concluded that pygmy rabbits use nutritional and chemical cues while making foraging decisions.

The central tenet of ecomorphological theory holds that there is a correlation between design (morphological traits) and ecology of organisms. The sigmodontine rodents (Rodentia, Cricetidae, Sigmodontinae) exhibit a remarkably high diversity of locomotory types, allowing them to occupy different environments and ecological niches. The main aims of our work were to test whether the internal morphology of the forelimb of 26 species of sigmodontines, as assessed through the analysis of 32 characters, differs among taxa that exhibit different types of locomotion (saltatorial, ambulatory, fossorial, scansorial, and natatorial), and whether such patterns also can be explained by the phylogenetic affinities of the species examined. Our results show that phylogeny explains an important part of the observed morphological variation in sigmodontine rodents. This phylogenetic inertia could be responsible for the homogeneity in the overall muscle forelimb morphology in this group. Tendon variables seem to be better descriptors of locomotory types than muscule variables. Twelve tendon variables of the forelimb exhibit distinct differences between fossorial and scansorial sigmodontines. No particular morphological variables are associated with ambulatory, saltatorial, and natatorial taxa. Additionally, 3 muscles (triceps longus, extensor digitorum, and flexor digitorum profundus) exhibit a greater anatomical cross-sectional area in fossorial and natatorial taxa than in other locomotory types.

La idea central de la teoría ecomorfológica plantea que existe una correlación entre los requisitos ecológicos y el diseño (morfología) de los organismos. Los roedores sigmodontinos presentan una amplia variedad de tipos locomotores que les permiten explorar distintos hábitats. Dada la escasez de estudios sobre aspectos ecomorfológicos del sistema músculo-tendinoso del miembro anterior, en este trabajo se propone investigar la relación entre los tipos locomotores y los rasgos morfológicos del miembro anterior en especies de sigmodontinos que exploran diferentes hábitats en un contexto filogenético. Se analizaron 32 caracteres en 26 especies de sigmodontinos exhibiendo distintos tipos de locomoción (cavador, trepador, saltador, terrestre y nadador) usando análisis de ordenamiento canónico. Nuestros resultados muestran que la filogenia explica una importante parte de la variación morfológica observada en los roedores sigmodontinos. Esta inercia filogenética podría ser la responsable de la homogeneidad morfológica general de los músculos del miembro anterior de este grupo. Se encontró que varios rasgos del sistema tendinoso fueron más informativos que los del sistema muscular, siendo aquellos los mejores descriptores para especies cavadoras y trepadoras. Doce rasgos del sistema tendinoso del miembro anterior de las especies cavadoras y trepadoras señalan interesantes diferencias entre estas dos actividades. Las especies saltadoras, terrestres y nadadoras no presentaron variables particulares asociadas con su tipo locomotor. Además, se observó que los cavadores y nadadores exhiben una mayor área de sección transversal anatómica de los tres músculos seleccionados (triceps longus, extensor digitorum, y flexor digitorum profundus) que el resto de las categorías locomotoras consideradas.

We describe the external morphological characters of red wolves, coyotes, and their hybrids from North Carolina and assess if morphology could be an accurate discriminator among the 3 canid taxa. We used body measurements from 171 red wolves (Canis rufus), 134 coyotes (Canis latrans), and 47 hybrids in a polytomous logistic regression analysis to assess if they could be used to identify canids as red wolves, coyotes, or hybrids. Polytomous logistic regression analysis of 7 morphometric variables was able to correctly allocate 86% of canids to their a priori taxa groups. Using Akaike's information criterion, we judged hind-foot length, body mass, width of head, and tail length as variables to best separate taxa. Among the 3 sympatric Canis taxa in eastern North Carolina, red wolves are clearly the larger canid with hybrids intermediate to coyotes and red wolves in body size. Our results suggest that red wolves represent a unique Canis phenotype in the southeastern United States.

To balance conflicting demands for food and safety from predation, foraging individuals trade off time between feeding and safety by vigilant behavior. We studied the behavior of red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) and pine martens (Martes martes) scavenging at carcasses of moose (Alces alces) killed by wolves (Canis lupus) in Sweden. Red foxes were observed visiting carcasses more often and at a higher frequency than pine martens, which restricted carcass use to certain habitats. Both species followed a similar daily and seasonal activity pattern. The seasonal peak of scavenging, in April for pine martens and April–May for red foxes, showed that remains of wolf-killed prey are likely an important food source for both of these species during reproduction. Pine martens displayed an overall higher level of vigilance and a lower level of feeding than red foxes. Vigilance by pine martens was affected by habitat, visibility, and vegetative cover at carcass sites. Pine martens did not display increased vigilance during time periods of high red fox activity and there was no effect of the time of day. Our study showed support for the importance of interspecific predation risk leading smaller predators to trade off foraging for increased vigilance, but habitat characteristics affected vigilance patterns more than the mere presence of a larger predator.

The snow leopard (Panthera uncia) is an endangered carnivore of southern and central Asia. Approximate 10% of the global population occurs in the Himalayan region of Nepal. The snow leopard is thought to be in decline because of human–snow leopard conflicts, poaching, habitat loss and fragmentation, decreasing prey populations, and a lack of awareness and enforcement of conservation legislation. In this study, we used habitat surveys and genetic analyses of putative snow leopard scats to estimate the abundance, habitat preferences, and diet profile of the snow leopard in the Annapurna Conservation Area, Nepal. Cliffs, grassland, and shrubland at high elevation (3,000–5,000 m) were the preferred habitats of snow leopards. Eighty-three percent of collected scats collected were verified to be from snow leopards using mitochondrial DNA cytochrome-b species-specific polymerase chain reaction assays. Sixty-two percent of the scats were successfully genotyped using 6 microsatellite markers, and identified as having originated from 5 different individuals. The dispersion of multiple scats from the same individual suggested minimum movement ranges of 89.4 km² for males and 59.3 km² for females. Estimated population density was 1.9 individuals/100 km² and 22 snow leopards were estimated to inhabit the upper Mustang region. Microhistological analysis of scats (n = 248) revealed that blue sheep (Pseudois nayaur) was the primary wild prey (63%), and livestock also contributed significantly (18%) to snow leopard diet. We used a multipronged strategy for assessing conservation options for this rare carnivore and compared our findings with those pertaining to other predators of the region that share similar habitats and resources. The findings from this study will be helpful in managing snow leopards and similar carnivore populations across the snow leopard's entire geographic range.

The catchment of the Congo River basin contains an extensive forest–savanna mosaic, which once harbored significant populations of lions (Panthera leo), African wild dogs (Lycaon pictus), and spotted hyenas (Crocuta crocuta). The mosaic's northern part, stretching across the Republic of Congo and southern Gabon, is today geographically isolated. Uncontrolled hunting has led to a gradual decrease in its ungulate populations, and today African wild dogs are considered extinct within the Congo Basin. Lions and spotted hyenas suffered an extreme collapse of their respective former ranges, and in the Republic of Congo both species are believed to survive exclusively in the Odzala-Kokoua National Park (OKNP). We surveyed all extensive savanna areas within this park, to determine the current status of savanna carnivores. We conducted 460 km of track searches on foot, and operated 25 remote camera traps across the survey area over 424 trap-days. We detected no sign of lion presence in the park. Spotted hyena tracks were widespread, and our camera traps recorded 154 hyena photographs, representing 46 different individuals. We also recorded leopard (Panthera pardus), serval (Leptailurus serval), and African golden cat (Caracal aurata) within the survey area. Although lions are likely extinct in the Republic of Congo and neighboring Gabon, our results highlight the importance of OKNP for the regional conservation of spotted hyenas and smaller savanna carnivores.

Le bassin versant du fleuve Congo comprend une vaste mosaïque de forêts et de savanes, qui autrefois abritait d'importantes populations de lions (Panthera leo), lycaons (Lycaon pictus) et hyènes tachetées (Crocuta crocuta). La partie nord de la mosaïque, qui s'étend sur la République du Congo et le sud du Gabon, est de nos jours géographiquement isolée. La chasse incontrôlée a conduit à une diminution progressive des populations d'ongulés, et actuellement les lycaons sont considérés comme éteints dans le bassin du Congo. Lions et hyènes tachetées ont subi une réduction extrême de leurs aires de répartition historiques respectives. Dans la République du Congo, on considère que ces espèces ne subsistent que dans le Parc national d'Odzala-Kokoua. Nous avons inventorié toutes les zones de savane dans ce parc afin de déterminer le statut actuel des carnivores de savane. Nous avons parcouru 460 kilomètres à pied à la recherche de pistes de ces espèces et utilisé 25 pièges photographiques dans la zone d'étude, pour un total de 424 jours de piégeage. Nous n'avons détecté aucun signe de présence de lions dans le parc. Les pistes des hyènes tachetées étaient largement répandues et nos pièges photographiques ont enregistré 154 photographies d'hyènes, représentant 46 individus. Nous avons également photographié dans la zone d'étude le léopard (Panthera pardus), le serval (Leptailurus serval) et le chat doré africain (Caracal aurata). Bien que les lions soient probablement éteints dans la République du Congo et au Gabon voisin, nos résultats mettent en évidence l'importance d'Odzala-Kokoua pour la conservation régionale des hyènes tachetées et des petits carnivores de savane.

The recent description of a new species of Amazonian tapir is inadequately supported by the genetic, morphological, and ethnographic information provided by the authors.

Voss et al. (this issue) took issue with our paper on a new species of Tapirus (Cozzuol et al. 2013), claiming that the evidence we presented was not “extraordinary” enough to support a new species of large mammal in the Amazon. We agree that a new large mammal species attracts more attention than a new smaller species; however, there is no real scientific reason for evidence requirements to be stricter due to animal size or popularity. We believe our evidence was sufficient to propose a new species and in this paper we counter point by point the objections raised by our colleagues. We revisit the phylogenetic analyses of molecular data, the multivariate analyses of morphometric data, the qualitative character differences, and indigenous knowledge.

Russell A. Mittermeier, Anthony B. Rylands, and Don E. Wilson (eds.). 2013. Handbook of the Mammals of the World: 3. Primates. Lynx Ediciones, Barcelona, Spain, 953 pp. ISBN: 978-84-96553-89-7, price (hardbound), 160.00 EURO.

Padian, K., and E.-T. Lamm (eds.). 2013. Bone Histology of Fossil Tetrapods: Advancing Methods, Analysis, and Interpretation. University of California Press, Berkeley, California, 285 pp. ISBN 978-0-520-27352-8, price (hardbound), $75.00.