The tsetse fly complex (Glossina spp.) is widely recognized as a key contributor to the African continent's continuing struggle to emerge from deep economic, social, and political problems. Vector control, the backbone of intensive efforts to remove the human and livestock trypanosomosis problem, has been typified by spectacular successes and failures. There is widespread agreement that integrated vector control, combined with direct disease treatment and prevention, has to play a major role in alleviating the tsetse burden in Africa. Mathematical and computer-based simulation models have been extensively used to try to understand how best to manage these control efforts. Such models in ecology have been helpful in giving broad generalizations about population dynamics and control. Unfortunately, in many ways they have inadequately addressed key aspects of the fly's biology and ecology, particularly the spatio-temporal variability of its habitats. These too must factor in any control efforts. Mathematical models have inherent limitations that must be considered in their use for control programs. In this review, we consider some of the controversies being debated within the field of ecology and evolution about the use of mathematical models and critically review several models that have been influential in structuring tsetse control efforts. We also make recommendations on the appropriate role that mathematical and simulation models should play when used for these purposes. Management programs are often vulnerable to naively using these models inappropriately. The questions raised in this review will apply broadly to many conservation and area-wide pest control programs with an ecological component relying on mathematical and computer simulation models to inform their decisions.

American foulbrood, because of its virulence and worldwide spread, is currently one of the most dangerous diseases of honey bees. Quick diagnosis of this disease is therefore vitally important. For its successful eradication, however, all the hives in the region must be tested. This is time consuming and costly. Therefore, a fast and sensitive method of detecting American foulbrood is needed. Here we present a method that significantly reduces the number of tests needed by combining batches of samples from different hives. The results of this method were verified by testing each sample. A simulation study was used to compare the efficiency of the new method with testing all the samples and to develop a decision tool for determining when best to use the new method. The method is suitable for testing large numbers of samples (over 100) when the incidence of the disease is low (10% or less).

The Asian citrus psyllid, Diaphorina citri Kuwayama (Hemiptera: Psyllidae), is one of the most important pests of citrus (Citrus spp.) because of its status as a vector of Candidatus Liberibacter asiaticus (Las), the bacterium associated with citrus greening disease. The use of insecticides for vector control is the primary method of managing the spread of this pathogen. Imidacloprid is an insecticide commonly applied to the root zone of young citrus trees to provide systemic protection from pests. The effects of imidacloprid on feeding behavior of D. citri have not been studied in much detail. The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of imidacloprid application on feeding behavior of D. citri and to determine whether use of this systemic insecticide could have any effect on pathogen transmission by D. citri. A direct current electrical penetration graph monitor was used to record D. citri feeding behaviors for 12-h periods on mature and young leaves of imidacloprid-treated and -untreated citrus seedlings. Overall, compared with untreated plants, the feeding behavior of D. citri was disrupted on imidacloprid-treated plants via reduction in the number of probes, as well as durations of average probes, initial stylet contact with phloem, phloem salivation, and phloem ingestion. The results of this study demonstrate that soil applications of imidacloprid can reduce the probability of citrus plants becoming inoculated with Las through a reduction in the number and duration of phloem salivation events by D. citri. Furthermore, Las acquisition from infected citrus is greatly reduced as a result of decreased phloem ingestion by D. citri on imidacloprid-treated plants.

Baculoviruses and parasitoids are important biological control factors of insects in integrated pest management. Microplitis bicoloratus Chen (Hymenoptera: Braconidae: Microgastrina) is a solitary endoparasitoid of beet armyworm, Spodoptera exigua (Hübner) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) larvae. M. bicoloratus parasitized first to third instars of S. exigua and most effectively parasitized second instars. The survival rate of parasitoids emerging from S. exigua multiple nucleopolyhedrovirus (SeMNPV)-infected hosts decreased with increasing SeMNPV doses at second to fourth instars. In addition, the mortality rate of the host was >80% when coinfected with SeMNPV and M. bicoloratus, regardless of virus doses or the timing of virus treatment. Occlusion body production was significantly reduced in parasitized hosts. A comparison of host weights showed that hosts coinfected with SeMNPV and M. bicoloratus were significantly lighter than those infected with SeMNPV alone, suggesting that the decrease in virus yield resulted from a reduction in larval growth. The viral genome copy number in parasitized host was significantly lower than that in nonparasitized host at 48 and 72 h postinfection. These results suggest that SeMNPV and M. bicoloratus are compatible as S. exigua control agents.

Bactericera cockerelli (Sulc) (Hemiptera: Triozidae) is a major pest of potato, (Solanum tuberosum L.), tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.), and peppers (Capsicum spp.). The purpose of our research was to identify and determine the impact of natural enemies on B. cockerelli population dynamics. Through 2 yr of field studies (2009–2010) at four different sites and laboratory feeding tests, we identified minute pirate bug, Orius tristicolor (White) (Hemiptera: Anthocoridae); western bigeyed bug, Geocoris pallens Stål (Hemiptera: Geocoridae), and convergent lady beetle, Hippodamia convergent Guérin-Méneville (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae) as key natural enemies of B. cockerelli in southern California potatoes, tomatoes, and bell peppers. In natural enemy exclusion cage experiments in the potato crop and in American nightshade, Solanum americanum Miller, the number of B. cockerelli surviving was significantly greater in the closed cage treatments, thus confirming the affect natural enemies can have on B. cockerelli. We discuss how this information can be used in an integrated pest management program for B. cockerelli.

Naturally occurring predators of the genus Orius (Heteroptera: Anthocoridae) often suppress agricultural pests in insecticide-free environments. Knowledge of Orius species composition in the field is important because species vary in their biology, prey preference, and ability to suppress pest populations. However, field-collected Orius bugs are often female biased and the identification of Orius females may be unreliable and time consuming. Identification of Orius species based on egg structure may allow easy and nondestructive identification of females, by inspecting the eggs they deposit, and identification of species that reproduce in the field. The aim of the current study was to illustrate how several Mediterranean Orius species could be identified using egg opercula. For this purpose, the structure of the operculum was described for eggs deposited by field-collected females, based on scanning electron microscope images. Then, adult males that developed from these eggs were identified to species by genitalia examination. A detailed description of diagnostic features of the operculum is given for each of four Orius species: O. albidipennis (Reuter), O. niger Wolff, O. laevigatas (Fieber), and O. horvathi (Reuter). Characterizing the structure of egg opercula of additional Orius species would facilitate ecological and biological control research in other parts of the world.

Previous studies reported that of the two egg parasitoids of Riptortus pedestris (F.) (Hemiptera: Alydidae) found in Korea, Gryon japonicum (Ashmead) (Hymenoptera: Scelionidae) appears in soybean fields much earlier than Ooencyrtus nezarae Ishii (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae). To explain this phenomenon, we evaluated the interactive influence of temperature and relative humidity (RH) on the biological attributes of these parasitoids, including adult parasitoid longevity and survival. Temperature had significant effects on all the biological attributes examined for both parasitoids, while RH only affected rates of parasitism and adult emergence. Interaction between temperature and species, but not RH and species was found to affect significantly on parasitism. G. japonicum showed higher relative increment in parasitism than O. nezarae at temperatures higher than 25°C. No significant differences in progeny sex ratio were detected for either species at any temperature X humidity combination. RH had no effect on the developmental time of O. nezarae but on the developmental time of G. japonicum, which was longer at low RH. Although the biological attributes of adult parasitoids of both species showed a wide range of adaptability, but it did not explain the patterns of occurrence of these species in the field. However, G. japonicum showed greater longevity than O. nezarae at all combinations of temperature and RH and this may partially explain the seasonal pattern of occurrence of adult parasitoids in the field previously observed.

Pseudoligosita plebeia (Perkins) (Hymenoptera: Trichogrammatidae) is a candidate biological control agent targeting the glassy-winged sharpshooter, Homalodisca vitripennis (Germar) (Hemiptera: Cicadellidae), in California. Little is known about the biology of P. plebeia. Here we report the results of laboratory studies describing the longevity of P. plebeia adults provided alternative food resources, their ability to parasitize H. vitripennis eggs of different ages, lifetime offspring production when provided steady access to excess host eggs, and levels of mature ovarian eggs present when wasps were held without access to hosts. P. plebeia is a gregarious parasitoid, with up to six adults emerging from a single H. vitripennis egg. When provided with honey and water, water alone, or no food or water, P. plebeia adult females lived an average of 64.1, 2.3, and 2.0 d, respectively. P. plebeia were able to successfully parasitize all ages of H. vitripennis eggs (1–8 d old), with higher parasitism in younger host eggs (1–3 d old) than in older host eggs (5–7 d old). An increasing trend in offspring production was seen for P. plebeia from adult age 2–26 d followed by a decreasing trend with offspring produced up to age 75 d. P. plebeia females are at least partially synovigenic, as they contained fewer mature eggs at younger ages (1 and 3 d old) than at older ages (5, 11, 15, and 31 d old). Our results provide foundational information regarding the biology of P. plebeia useful for its further evaluation as a potential biological control agent in California.

Carposina sasakii Matsumura (Lepidoptera: Carposinidae) is a serious pest of apples and peaches in Korea and Japan. Because of its limited distribution, C. sasakii has been identified as a quarantine pest in several countries. The Controlled Atmosphere/Temperature Treatment System (CATTS) was tested as an alternative to methyl bromide fumigation to control C. sasakii in apples. The fifth instar was the most tolerant immature stage to a heat treatment of 44°C for 20 min. When the apples infested with different stages of C. sasakii were treated under CATTS conditions (heating rate of 16°C/h, chamber temperature of 46°C, final core temperature of 44°C under 1% O₂/15% CO₂ atmosphere), young larvae (first-fourth instars) did not survive after 40 min exposure, but the fifth instars required an exposure of at least 60 min to attain 100% mortality. A partial heat shock protein 90 (hsp90) was cloned and showed inducible expression in response to heat shock at 44°C. CATTS suppressed transcription of the hsp90 gene. Apples did not show any appreciable loss of quality in relation to fruit firmness, sweetness, and decay after a 60 min CATTS treatment. These results suggest that CATTS can be applicable to control C. sasakii in apples.

The apple maggot fly, Rhagoletis pomonella (Walsh), is a key pest of apple in eastern North America that has been historically controlled with organophosphate insecticide applications. Here we report on progress toward development of an effective and maintenance-free attracticidal sphere system for this pest species. In our studies, we evaluated lethality of spinosad in combination with a feeding stimulant (sucrose) to replace a Tangletrap sticky coating as the killing agent of a sphere-based behavioral control system. Spinosad was incorporated into cylindrical and contoured controlled-release caps that were fixed atop visually stimulating sphere bases. For both cap styles, spinosad at or near 1.0% (a.i.) proved to be a relatively durable fly-killing agent, providing ≈85% mortality after simulated rainfall exposure reflective of average season-long precipitation levels experienced during the primary period of risk of apple maggot injury to fruit in the northeastern United States. In field trials, we assessed the impact of color degradation of contoured controlledrelease caps on visual responsiveness of apple maggot fly and found that it had no significant impact on captures. In commercial orchard trials designed to evaluate the potential of attracticidal spheres with contoured caps for direct control of apple maggot, a perimeter-based deployment provided protection comparable to plots receiving 1–2 whole-plot insecticide applications.

Solid Mallet TMR (trimedlure [TML], methyl eugenol [ME], raspberry ketone [RK]) wafers and Mallet CMR (ceralure, ME, RK, benzyl acetate) wafers impregnated with DDVP (2,2-dichlorovinyl dimethyl phosphate) insecticide were measured in traps as potential detection and male annihilation technique (MAT) devices. Comparisons were made with 1) liquid lure and insecticide formulations, 2) solid cones and plugs with an insecticidal strip, and 3) solid single and double lure wafers with DDVP for captures of Mediterranean fruit fly, Ceratitis capitata (Wiedemann); oriental fruit fly, Bactrocera dorsalis Hendel; and melon fly, B. Cucurbitae Coquillett. Bucket and Jackson traps were tested in a coffee plantation near Eleele, Kauai Island, HI (trials at high populations) and avocado orchards near Kona, HI Island, HI (trials at low populations). Captures of all three species with Mallet TMR were not different from Mallet CMR; therefore, subsequent experiments did not include Mallet CMR because of higher production costs. In MAT trials near Eleele, HI captures in AWPM traps with Mallet TMR wafers were equal to any other solid lure (single or double) except the Mallet ME wafer. In survey trials near Kona, captures of C. capitata, B. Cucurbitae, and B. dorsalis with Mallet TMR wafers were equal to those for the standard TML, ME, and C-L traps used in FL and CA. A solid Mallet TMR wafer is safer, more convenient to handle, and may be used in place of several individual lure and trap systems, potentially reducing costs of large survey and detection programs in Florida and California, and MAT programs in Hawaii.

The jasmine bud borer Trichophysetis cretacea (Butler) (Lepidoptera: Crambidae) is an important agricultural pest of jasmine flowers Jasminum sambac in China. The extract from the pheromone gland of the female moth was analyzed by gas chromatography coupled to mass spectroscopy (GC-MS). (Z)-11-hexadecenylacetate (Z11–16:Ac), (Z)-11-hexadecenal (Z11–16:Ald),and (Z)-11-hexadecenol (Z11–16:OH) were identified as the probable sex pheromone components. The electroantennogram (EAG) bioassay confirmed the results from the chemical analysis. Field bioassays conducted in the late summer and fall in Quanwei, Sichuan, China, showed that the synthetic chemical blend of Z11–16:Ac, Z11–16:Ald, and Z11–16:OH was highly attractive to male T. cretacea moths, and none of the three components was attractive by itself. All three components were necessary and the ratio of the three was critical. The highest number of male moths was captured when the ratio of Z11–16:Ac: Z11–16:Ald:ZH-16:OH was 10:10:1 at a dosage per lure of 200 µg Z11–16:Ac. The binary mixture of 200 µg Z11–16:Ac and 25 µg Z11–16:OH captured a number of Nymphicula mesorphna (10.3 ± 4.4). The results indicate that traps with synthetic pheromone lures can be used to monitor jasmine bud borer populations in the field and potentially to control this pest.

The tropical sod webworm, Herpetogramma phaeopteralis Guenée is a major turfgrass pest in the southeastern United States. We evaluated larval development on five artificial diets and at six temperatures (15, 20, 25, 30, 32.5, 35 ± 1°C) on St. Augustinegrass (Stenotaphrum secundatum (Walter) Kuntze). Only larvae fed St. Augustinegrass and soy-wheat germ diets completed their lifecycles. None of the artificial diets tested (corn-based, soy-wheat germ, corn cob-wheat germ, corn cob-soy flour, or pinto bean) were suitable for rearing this species, because of high mortality and slower developmental time. Total developmental time (oviposition to adult) on S. secundatum significantly decreased from 47.8 d at 20°C to 21.1 d at 30°C, and then increased to 32.6 d at 32.5°C. Tropical sod webworm failed to complete larval development at 15 and 35°C. The relationship between temperature and developmental rate was described using linear (common and polynomial) and nonlinear models (Briere-1, Briere-2, and Lactin-2). The estimated lower temperature thresholds using a linear model for eggs, first, second, third, fourth, fifth, and sixth instars, prepupa, pupa, and total development were 10.1, 6.9, 12.3, 10.5, 15.3, 13.9, 9.1, 13.1, 12.0, and 13.1°C, and the thermal constant of these stages were 62.9, 66.2, 38.2, 40.3, 24.9, 32.3, 51.9,106.4,109.9, and 370.4 degree-days, respectively. The Briere-1 model provided the best fit with estimated lower, upper, and optimum thresholds for total development of 14.9, 34.3, and 29.4°C, respectively. The developmental requirements of H. phaeopteralis can be used to help predict the distribution and seasonal phenology of this pest.

Aulacaspis yasumatsui Takagi continues to threaten the extinction of the endemic and endangered Cycas taitungensis (Shen et al.) in Taiwan. Failure to understand its population demographic parameters in detail will continue to hinder the success of pest management practices. An in-depth knowledge of the development, survival, and fecundity of A. yasumatsui under different environmental conditions is necessary to understand its' population growth. The demography of A. yasumatsui was studied in the laboratory based on the age-stage, two-sex life table at 20, 23, 25, 28, and 31°C, 70% relative humidity, and a photoperiod of 16:8 (L:D) h. The intrinsic rate of increase (r) under these temperatures was 0.06, 0.07, 0.09, 0.10, and 0.08 d^-1, respectively. The net reproductive rate (R₀) was 46.27, 47.78, 69.50, 96.08, and 56.65 offsprings per individual and the mean generation time (T) was 65.60, 55.81, 47.82, 44.15, and 51.42 d, respectively. A. yasumatsui does well at warmer temperatures (25–28°C); however, its performance is disrupted at lower temperatures. This study provides insight on how to minimize growth and destruction of A. yasumatsui and conservation of Cy. taitungensis; new cycad reserves should be set up in cooler areas in Taiwan.

Although fire ants frequently have negative impacts on agricultural systems and public health, they have additional beneficial insecticidal effects. To evaluate the potential effect of fire ant venoms on agricultural pests, the compositions of the venoms and their insecticidal activities against Plutella xylostella (L.) larvae were evaluated under laboratory conditions. The alkaloids found in Solenopsis geminata (F.) venom are primarily saturated C₁₁, which occur in both cis and trans forms, whereas the venom of S. invicta Buren contains six principal alkaloids (from trans C₁₁ to C₁₇). Moreover, the proportions of unsaturated alkaloids in the venom of polygynous S. invicta were significantly higher than the corresponding proportions in the monogynous S. invicta, as shown by our previous studies. Fire ant venoms were topically applied to the dorsal thoracic region of fourth-instar larvae of P. xylostella. The results of the experiment showed that the larval symptoms induced by fire ant venom include contractile, flaccid paralysis, black coloration and death. P. xyhstella larvae were most susceptible to S. geminata venom. The order of the susceptibilities of the larvae to the venoms was as follows: S. geminata > S. invicta (monogyne form) > S. invicta (polygyne form), as measured by the corresponding LT₅₀ values at 24 h.

The Mexican rice borer, Eoreuma loflini (Dyar) (Lepidoptera: Crambidae), is the key pest of sugarcane (Saccharum spp.) in Texas; it can attack several grassy crop and noncrop host plants and has spread into Louisiana. Through small-plot, commercial field, and pheromone trap experiments, this study demonstrates that the pest uses corn, Zea mays L., more than sugarcane and sorghum, Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench, but when corn is harvested in late summer, injury to nearby sugarcane strongly increases during the next ≈2 mo to harvest. Corn was more infested than sugarcane and sorghum in commercial fields regardless of whether sampling occurred on field edges or farther into field interiors. Differences in numbers of infested stalks and in numbers of larval entry holes between field edges and interiors were not detected. We found that Mexican rice borer infestation of corn can cause loss of ears, and lodging, shattering, and complete destruction of maturing stalks. The larger quantities of adult Mexican rice borers captured in pheromone-based traps placed at corn field edges compared with sorghum and sugarcane field edges further indicates that corn is preferred to sugarcane and sorghum. The basis for the pest's attraction to corn and implications to potential range expansion to other U.S. sugarcane-growing regions are discussed.

Apolygus lucorum (Meyer-Dür) (Heteroptera: Miridae) has become a severe pest of cotton and many other crops in northern China as a result of the widespread adoption of Bacillus thuringiensis (Berliner) cotton, with a corresponding reduction of broad-spectrum insecticide application in cotton fields. From the middle of April to middle June, A. lucorum feeds and develops on other host plants before dispersing to cotton fields. Effective suppression of A. lucorum populations before they enter cotton fields may be an excellent strategy for reducing the occurrence and damage of their subsequent generations in cotton fields. For that, basic information about the host plant range of A. lucorum during the early season is needed. Between 2006 and 2010, a total of 94 plant species from 41 families covering 39,956 square meters of land in natural conditions were sampled using the standard white pan beat method. Sixty-six plant species, including 45 weeds, 10 fruit trees, 5 timber trees, 4 pasture crops, and 2 arable crops were found to be hosts of A. lucorum. Among these species, Descurainia sophia (L.) Webb ex Prantl, Hamulus scandens (Loureiro) Merrill, Zizyphus jujuba Miller, Vitis vinifera L., Vicia faba L., and Medicago sativa L. were identified as dominant host species because of their wide distribution and high population densities of A. lucorum. The results of this study provide useful information about the early season host range of A. lucorum, which can be used to develop effective strategies to control the pest before its dispersal to cotton fields.

Cereal leaf beetle, Oulema melanopus L., can be effectively managed in southeastern U.S. wheat, Triticum aestivum L., with scouting and a single insecticide treatment, applied at the recommended economic threshold. However, many growers eschew this approach for a prophylactic treatment, often tank mixed with a nitrogen application before wheat growth stage 30. The efficacy of a prophylactic and an integrated pest management (IPM) approach was compared for 2 yr using small plot studies in North Carolina and regional surveys across North Carolina and Virginia. Economic analyses were performed, comparing the total cost of management of each approach using the regional survey data. From a cost perspective, the prophylactic approach was riskier, because when cereal leaf beetle densities were high, economic loss was also high. However, fields under the prophylactic approach did not exceed threshold as often as fields using IPM. Total cost of prophylactic management was also $20.72 less per hectare, giving this approach an economic advantage over IPM. The majority of fields under the IPM approach did not exceed the economic threshold. Hence, from an economic perspective, both the prophylactic and IPM approaches have advantages and disadvantages. This helps explains the partial, rather than complete, adoption of IPM by southeastern U.S. wheat growers. Cereal leaf beetle was spatially aggregated across the region in 2010, but not in 2011. As a result, from an economic standpoint, prophylaxis or IPM may have a better fit in localized areas of the region than others. Finally, because IPM adoption is favored when it has a strong economic advantage over alternative management approaches, more emphasis should be placed on research to reduce costs within the IPM approach.

The development of integrated pest management is hampered by lack of information on how insect pest abundances relate to yield losses, and how pests are affected by control measures. In this study, we develop integrated pest management tactics for Apion spp. weevils (Coleoptera: Brentidae) in seed production of red clover, Trifolium pratense L. We tested a method to forecast pest damage, quantified the relationship between pest abundance and yield, and evaluated chemical and biological pest control in 29 Swedish red clover fields in 2008 and 2011. Pest inflorescence abundance, which had a highly negative effect on yield, could be predicted with pan trap catches of adult pests. In 2008, chemical control with typically one application of pyrethroids was ineffective both in decreasing pest abundances and in increasing yields. In 2011, when chemical control included applications of the neonicotinoid thiacloprid, pest abundances decreased and yields increased considerably in treated field zones. A post hoc analysis indicated that using pyrethroids in addition to thiacloprid was largely redundant. Infestation rates by parasitoids was higher and reached average levels of around 40% in insecticide treated field zones in 2011, which is a level of interest for biological pest control. Based on the data presented, an economic threshold for chemical control is developed, and guidelines are provided on minimum effective chemical pest control.

In general, Armadillidium vulgare (Latreille) are considered nonpests of soybean [Glycine max (L.) Merrill], but changes in soil conservation practices have shifted the pest status of this organism from an opportunistic to a perennial, early-season pest in parts of central Kansas. As a result, soybean producers that rotate with corn (Zea mays L.) under conservation tillage practices have resorted to removing excess corn residue by using controlled burns. In a 2-yr field study (2009–2010), we demonstrated that residue removal in burned compared with unburned plots (measured as previous crop residue weights) had minimal impact on numbers of live and dead A. vulgare, soybean seedling emergence, and isopod feeding damage over time. Specifically, removal of residue by burning did not result in higher emergence rates for soybean stands or less feeding damage by A. vulgare. In a separate study, we found that number of live A. vulgare and residue weights had no consistent relationship with seedling emergence or feeding damage. Furthermore, seedling emergence was not impacted by higher numbers of A. vulgare in unburned plots, indicating that emergence in this study may have been influenced by factors other than A. vulgare densities. These studies demonstrate that removing residue through controlled burning did not impact seedling emergence in presence of A. vulgare and that residue and feeding damage to seedlings did not consistently relate to A. vulgare densities. Other factors that may have influenced a relationship between residue and live isopod numbers, such as variable moisture levels, are discussed.

Little research has been conducted to investigate interactions between the invasive Formosan subterranean termite, Coptotermes formosanus Shiraki, and pine bark beetles native to the southeastern United States. Facilitative interactions between these organisms could alter stand dynamics and impact wood utilization strategies. American Wood Protection Association Standard El-09 choice tests were carried out to determine the feeding preference of Formosan subterranean termites for blue-stained versus unstained southern yellow pine sapwood. Three separate colonies of Formosan subterranean termites consumed on average twice as much air-dried blue-stained southern yellow pine sapwood over unstained air-dried controls. Additionally, Formosan subterranean termites consumed over five-times more kiln-dried blue-stained sapwood than unstained kiln-dried control wafers. The implications of these results are particularly relevant to pine forest ecology, nutrient cycling, and the utilization of blue-stained southern pine building products in the southeastern United States, where Formosan subterranean termites have become established.

Untreated firewood can harbor destructive insects and pathogens and transport them to uninfested areas. In a national survey of retail locations selling firewood in 18 states, over half (52%) of the firewood was from sources out of the purchase state and 50% showed evidence of insect infestation. In a three state survey of southern Rocky Mountain retailers, the most common retailer types carrying firewood were grocery stores and department or big box stores followed by gas stations or convenience stores. In 2007–2009, we purchased 419 firewood bundles from retailers in Colorado, New Mexico, Utah, and Wyoming and caged the firewood to quantify insect emergence. Live insects emerged from 47% of firewood bundles over 18 mo of rearing time. Approximately 11 insects emerged on average from each infested bundle (1–520 per bundle). Pine, fir, and mixed-conifer bundles yielded the greatest number of insects. Beetles (Coleoptera) were prominent and made up the majority of individuals (3–60 individuals in each of 24 families). Most Coleoptera were bark and ambrosia beetles (subfamily Scolytinae) while wood borers (Buprestidae, Cerambycidae, Siricidae) occurred in lower numbers. Firewood with evidence of previous or current insect infestation was more likely to have insects emerge than firewood without such evidence. The risk of moving live native or nonindigenous insects in untreated firewood is high because insects emerged up to 558 d from purchase date. Retail firewood should be heat treated in a manner to eliminate insects that is uniformly accepted across North America.

The amber-marked birch leafminer (Profenusa thomsoni [Konow]) (Hymenoptera: Tenthredinidae) has caused severe infestations of birch species in Anchorage, AK, since 2002. Its spatial distribution has been monitored since 2006 and summarized using interpolated surfaces based on simple kriging. Results indicate that this insect pest is unevenly distributed, occurring in multineighborhood sized patches that migrate from year to year. Patches showing heavy infestation one year are followed by light infestations the following year. In this study, we developed methods of assessing and describing spatial distributions of P. thomsoni as they vary from year to year, and speculate on potential causes of these trends in landscape patterns.

The western pine beetle, Dendroctonus brevicomis LeConte (Coleoptera: Curculionidae, Scolytinae), is a major cause of ponderosa pine, Pinus ponderosa Douglas ex Lawson, mortality in much of western North America. We review several years of research that led to the identification of Verbenone Plus, a novel four-component semiochemcial blend [acetophenone, (E)2-hexen-1-ol (Z)-2-hexen-1-ol, and (-)-verbenone] that inhibits the response of D. brevicomis to attractant-baited traps, and examine the efficacy of Verbenone Plus for protecting individual trees and forest stands from D. brevicomis infestations in British Columbia and California. In all experiments, semiochemicals were stapled around the bole of treated trees at ≈2 m in height. (-)-Verbenone alone had no effect on the density of total attacks and successful attacks by D. brevicomis on attractant-baited P. ponderosa, but significantly increased the percentage of pitchouts (unsuccessful D. brevicomis attacks). Verbenone Plus significantly reduced the density of D. brevicomis total attacks and D. brevicomis successful attacks on individual trees. A significantly higher percentage of pitchouts occurred on Verbenone Plus-treated trees. The application of Verbenone Plus to attractant-baited P. ponderosa significantly reduced levels of tree mortality. In stand protection studies, Verbenone Plus significantly reduced the percentage of trees mass attacked by D. brevicomis in one study, but in a second study no significant treatment effect was observed. Future research should concentrate on determining optimal release rates and spacings of release devices in stand protection studies, and expansion of Verbenone Plus into other systems where verbenone alone has not provided adequate levels of tree protection.

The mealybug Ferrisia gilli Gullan is a serious new pest of pistachios in California. It was first found near the town of Tulare in the late 1990s and has since spread to orchards in most pistachio-producing regions of the state. The seasonal phenology of F. gilli was evaluated in a commercial pistachio orchard in Tulare County during 2005 and 2006. During both seasons F. gilli overwintered as small nymphs and had three complete generations per year. Mealybug population densities were low and remained as immatures in March and April; by late May adult females formed and averaged (±SE) 1.3 ± 0.3 and 1.2 ± 0.3 per 0.75 m of sample branch in 2005 and 2006, respectively. The first in-season generation occurred from early June through mid-July, with mealybug densities ranging from 17.6 ± 5.6-26.4 ± 6.2 mealybugs per 0.75 m sample branch. The second in-season generation occurred from late July through September and had peak densities of 408.6 ± 93.9 and 182.0 ± 34.2 mealybugs per branch. In March and April mealybugs were located primarily on the buds and branch wood; in May the population was on branch wood as well as the rachis; from June through September the population was located primarily in the pistachio cluster. F. gilli's seasonal phenology described herein was used to develop a management program.

Field-based bioassays were used to determine the relative impact of rainfall on the relative toxicity of four insecticides, phosmet, carbaryl, zeta-cypermethrin, or imidacloprid, from different chemical classes on adult Japanese beetles, Popillia japonica Newman, in highbush blueberries, Vaccinium corymbosum L. Bioassays were set up 24 h after spraying occurred and Japanese beetle condition was scored as alive, knockdown or immobile 1, 24, and 48 h after bioassay setup. All insecticides were significantly more toxic than the untreated control and zeta-cypermethrin consistently had the greatest toxic effect against the Japanese beetles. All insecticides experienced a decrease in efficacy after simulated rainfall onto treated blueberry shoots, although the efficacy of zetacypermethrin was the least affected by rainfall. This study will help blueberry growers make informed decisions on when reapplications of insecticides are needed in the field with the aim of improving integrated pest management (IPM).

Light brown apple moth [Epiphyas postvittana (Walker) ] is now established as an economic and quarantine pest in California, and new technologies are being investigated to increase options for its management. Two new organic formulations for mating disruption, SPLAT LBAM HD-O and organic Hereon Biotie (biodegradable) were field tested at four point source densities (25, 72, 322, and 500/ha) and compared with the standard Isomate LBAM Plus(500/ha, as a positive control) and an untreated (negative) control. Assessment involved trapping using synthetic lures and virgin females. In total, 175,776 male light brown apple moths were caught to both the caged females and synthetic lures, from 10 February to 19 May 2011. The light brown apple moth catch dramatically decreased from baseline measurements after the treatments were applied, with the highest density treatments reducing catch to below 10% of the catch in the untreated controls within the first week (>90% disruption). In synthetic lure traps, the SPLAT and Biotie treatment performed similarly well over all rates (P = 0.317 for posttreatment percentage communication disruption), but SPLAT performed better at disrupting virgin female traps (P = 0.045). There was a significant increase in disruption with an increasing number of points/ha (P < 0.001). Disruption of communication was similar for all three technologies (SPLAT, Biotie and Isomate) at 500 points/ha for both types of trap (P > 0.74). Disruption of this species in vineyards is thus highly feasible.

Large-scale field efficacy trials of methoxyfenozide (Intrepid), a reduced-risk molting agonist insecticide, were conducted in 2004 and 2005 in an orchard containing ‘Nonpareil’ and ‘Sonora’ almonds [Prunus dulcis (Mill.) D.A. Webb] located in Kern County, CA. Methoxyfenozide applied one to three times, the organophosphate phosmet (Imidan) alone or in combination with methoxyfenozide, or the pyrethroid permethrin (Perm-Up) were tested for efficacy against the primary lepidopteran pest navel orangeworm, Amyelois transitella (Walker) (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae), and three other lepidopteran pests of almond: oriental fruit moth, Grapholita molesta (Busck); obliquebanded leafroller, Choristoneura rosaceana (Harris); and peach twig borer, Anarsia lineatella Zeller. Two or three applications of methoxyfenozide (bracketing hull split or spring plus bracketing hull split) were more effective than a single hull split application of phosmet, phosmet combined with permethrin, or methoxyfenozide. In these trials, a spring application followed by a posthull split application was as effective as the applications bracketing hull split. Navel orangeworm accounted for >60% of the total damage, whereas oriental fruit moth and peach twig borer were the dominant secondary pests. In experiments conducted in 2010 to assess the direct toxicity of methoxyfenozide to navel orangeworm eggs under field conditions, exposure to methoxyfenozide reduced survival by 96–99%. We conclude that this reduced-risk insecticide is effective, although its efficacy is maximized with more than one well-timed application.

Fruit orchards in New Jersey are usually isolated from neighboring farms and diversified, often containing separate plantings of peach (Prunus spp.) and apple (Malus spp.). These crops can suffer significant damage from oriental fruit moth, Grapholita molesta (Busck) (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae). This study evaluated the effect of managing G. molesta by using sex pheromone—based mating disruption applied to both peaches and apples (whole-farm mating disruption) rather than treating either crop alone. In year 1 of the experiment, G. molesta mating disruption applied to the adjacent peach and apple blocks provided better control than treating peaches or apples alone. During year 2, treating these adjacent blocks or only treating apples controlled G. molesta equally well. G. molesta populations were so low at the end of year 2 that mating disruption was not applied against this pest during year 3. This allowed us to determine whether applying mating disruption for two consecutive years controlled G. molesta well enough that it eliminated the need mating disruption for three consecutive years. The mean cumulative number of G. molesta captured in plots where both peaches and apples had been treated did not exceed two moths per trap in the third year of this experiment. In contrast, G. molesta capture rebounded during August in peaches and apples that had not been treated with mating disruption the previous 2 yr. Implications for managing G. molesta by using mating disruption as a “whole-farm” tactic as well applying it for two consecutive years and not a third year are discussed.

The predation capacity of the spined soldier bug, Podisus maculiventris (Say) (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae), was evaluated at three release rates in field cages containing larvae of the yellowmargined leaf beetle, Microtheca ochroloma Stål (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae), a pest of organic crucifer (Brassicaceae) crops in the United States. The experiment was conducted twice, in February—March 2009 and in February—March 2010. On the same day as the introduction of 132 first instars of M. ochroloma into the cages, four (= low), 10 (=medium), or 16 (=high) first instars of P. maculiventris were released evenly among six turnip (Brassica rapa L.) plants in cages. Control treatment cages received no predators. In 2009, the mean number of M. ochroloma larvae declined progressively during the first four sampling dates. On the final (seventh) sampling date, the mean numbers of total M. ochroloma in the two higher release-rate treatments were significantly lower than in the low release-rate and control treatments. Overall survivorship of P. maculiventris was 39.1% in the high release-rate treatment. In 2010, the mean number of M. ochroloma larvae declined progressively during the first four sampling dates. On the fourth sampling date and the final (ninth) sampling date, there were no significant differences among treatments involving predator releases. The lowest overall survivorship of P. maculiventris (3.1%) was in the high release-rate treatment. Two tentative recommendations for growers emerged from this study: 1) release 10 first instars of P. maculiventris per six plants if the plants are expected to have ≥7 leaves per plant; or 2) release four first instars of P. maculiventris per six plants if the plants are expected to have ≤6 leaves per plant.

The efficacy of 37 insecticide treatments against adult Halyomorpha halys (Stål) was established based on exposure to 18-h old dry insecticide residue in laboratory bioassays. Individual adult H. halys were exposed to an insecticide residue for 4.5 h and then monitored daily for survivorship over a 7-d period. The proportion of dead and moribund insects was used as an estimate of overall insecticide efficacy against H. halys immediately after the exposure period and over the 7-d trial. Among all materials evaluated, 14 insecticides exhibited increasing efficacy, in which the percentage of dead and moribund insects (used as a measure of insecticide efficacy) increased by >10% after 7 d. By contrast, insecticide efficacy values of eight insecticides declined by >10% (based on recovery of adults from a moribund state) over the 7-d period with most belonging to the pyrethroid class. In this study, the efficacy value of neonicotinoid, acetamiprid, showed the greatest decline from 93 to 10% over 7 d. A lethality index (scale of 0–100) was developed to compare insecticides based on quantifying the immediate and longer-term effects of insecticide exposure on H. halys. Among all materials evaluated, dimethoate, malathion, bifenthrin, methidathion, endosulfan, methomyl, chlorpyrifos, acephate, fenpropathrin, and permethrin yielded the highest values (>75) because of a high degree of immediate mortality with very little recovery. Our results provide baseline information regarding potential of candidate insecticides against adult H. halys and highlight the need to consider longer-term effects in establishing overall efficacy ratings against this invasive species.

Toxicity and horizontal transmission of chlorantraniliprole were measured against field-collected eastern subterranean termites, Reticulitermes flavipes (Kollar). Chlorantraniliprole was highly toxic to termite workers in brief and continuous exposure assays across a range of concentrations from 5 to 100 ppm. All doses tested resulted in 100% mortality in the termites in 14 d. The effect of exposure route (topical, oral, or both) was investigated by exposing termites to treated substrate only, treated food only, or both. Results indicate that exposure route has no significant effect on chlorantraniliprole toxicity and demonstrate that chlorantraniliprole is highly active by feeding and contact. Results of feeding assays (paper consumption tests) demonstrate that as little as 5-ppm chlorantraniliprole applied to sand prevents termites from consuming cellulose that is in contact with the treated sand. Termites on untreated soil consumed 79 ± 3% of the available paper in 3 d, whereas termites on chlorantraniliprole-treated did not consume any paper before they became symptomatic and died. Results of transfer tests demonstrate that chlorantraniliprole is transferred efficiently among the termites. The rate and the level of secondary mortality in the recipient termites depend on both the concentration of chlorantraniliprole and the duration of exposure in the donors. Little secondary mortality was observed with the lowest dose of 5 ppm, which was effective at killing the donor termites, but insufficient to cause mortality in the recipient termites. In contrast, highly efficient transfer was observed with 25 and 50 ppm chlorantraniliprole. Both doses resulted in 100% mortality in the donors and the recipients at 21 d after exposing the recipients to the treated donors. These data demonstrate that chlorantraniliprole has dose-independent toxicity, delayed toxicity, and is readily transferred in eastern subterranean termites.

Twenty-nine natural products and their derivatives were tested for both contact and vapor toxicity against the Formosan subterranean termite, Coptotermes formosanus Shiraki (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae). Five natural products at 0.5% (wt:wt) in petri dish contact assay caused 100% mortality within 3 d. In vapor form, only three chemicals (styrallyl alcohol, 2-phenyl-2-propanol, and l-carvone) at 0.25 µl/liter air caused >90% mortality in 3 d when tested on exposed termites. However, when termites were shielded by wood and soil, only one chemical, tetrahydrocarvone at 25 µl/liter air caused 100% mortality in 2 d. Preliminary test with termites in carton nests, exposed to tetrahydrocarvone vapor in desiccators, resulted in an average of 98.6% mortality in 7 d. With further development in the method of delivery, this chemical may be very useful in fumigating confined areas of termite infestation.

The Asian needle ant (Pachycondyla chinensis Emery) is invading natural and disturbed habitats across the eastern United States. While recent studies document the impact of P. chinensis on native ecosystems and human health, effective control measures remain unknown. Thus, we evaluated the field performance of a hydramethylnon granular bait, Maxforce Complete Granular Insect Bait, dispersed in clumps or scattered against P. chinensis. We also measured the effect of this bait on P. chinensis outside of the treatment zone. Surprisingly, unlike reports for other ant species, we achieved nearly complete P. chinensis population reductions 1 d after treatments were applied. Significant ant reductions were achieved until the end of our study at 28 d. No difference was recorded between clumped and scattered application methods. We found no overall difference in ant reductions from the edge out to 5 m beyond the treatment zone. Other local ant species appeared to be unaffected by the bait and foraging activity increased slightly after P. chinensis removal from treated areas. We suggest that Maxforce Complete Granular Insect Bait can be effective in an Asian needle ant treatment program.

The consumption and food transfer efficiency of two commercially used termite bait materials, southern yellow pine wood and cardboard, and one potential bait material, maize (Zeamays L.) cob, were evaluated for use against the Formosan subterranean termite, Coptotermes formosanus Shiraki (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae), in the laboratory. In the no-choice test, the consumption of wood and cob was similar and significantly more than cardboard. Tunneling under the food sources was similar. In the two-choice test, the consumption was cob > wood, wood > cardboard, cob = cardboard, and tunneling under these choices was cob = wood, wood = cardboard, cob > cardboard. In the three-choice test, no significant difference was detected in consumption, but tunnels made under the cob were significantly more than wood and cardboard. Nile blue A was used to study food transfer of bait material among termite cohorts. Dyed cardboard, cob, or wood (0.1% Nile blue A) was provided to termites as food. Termites feeding on wood turned blue in significantly greater number at 6 h compared with cardboard and cob, but there was no significant difference after 12 h. Blue termites feeding on different bait materials were then collected and combined with undyed termites. When undyed (white) termites were placed with blue termites and food (wood block), termites turned blue in the same percentage regardless of original bait material fed on. However, when no food was provided (starvation group), the rate of white termites turning blue was dramatic; in dyed wood treatment, significantly more termites turned blue than that of cardboard, although neither were significantly different from cob. Our study is the first to show that, cob, an otherwise waste product of the food and biofuel industry, is as efficient as wood and cardboard as a termite bait matrix.

The toxicity and horizontal transfer of a new formulation of fipronil, 0.5% fipronil dust, was tested against Coptotermes formosanus Shiraki in the laboratory. The formulation was applied in three different ways: 1) Directly applied to termites (donors) and mixed with untreated termites (recipients) at three ratios, viz., 50 donors: 50 recipients, 20 donors: 80 recipients and 10 donors: 90 recipients. 2) Applied onto the surface of 3 mm thick sand or soil substrate in a petri dish and then topped with another 3 mm thick sand or soil layer whereupon termites were released. 3) Applied to the inner surface of a tube (either 5 cm or 15 cm long) that connected two foraging dishes, one containing dry sand and the other moist sand plus a wood block and termites were released into the dry sand dish. All donors and >93% of the recipients were dead by 42 h after treatment in the direct treatment experiment. Significant mortalities of both donors and recipients were observed at 5 h after treatment at all donor: recipient ratios. During this period, the mortality of the recipients (but not donors) at 10: 90 was significantly lower than those at the other two ratios. All termites were dead at 65 h after exposure (HAE) on the sand treatment and at 190 HAE on soil treatment. More than 96% mortality was observed at 40 HAE on the sand treatment as compared with only 6% mortality on soil treatment during the same time period. In the tube treatment experiment, >97% mortality was observed at 90 h after release for both tube lengths as compared with <3% mortality in controls. About half of the termites were dead by 15 h after release regardless of the tube length. Our results showed that 0.5% fipronil dust is nonrepellent and readily transferred from treated to nontreated termites.

Field trials were conducted at Rosemount, MN in 2009 and 2010, to measure pollen movement from Bt corn to adjacent blocks of non-Bt refuge corn. As the use of Bt corn hybrids continues to increase in the United States, and new insect resistance management (IRM) plans are implemented, it is necessary to measure the efficacy of these IRM plans. In Minnesota, the primary lepidopteran pests of corn include the European corn borer, Ostrinia nubilalis (Hübner) and corn earworm, Helicoverpa zea (Boddie). The primary IRM plan in transgenic corn is the use of hybrids expressing a high dose of insecticidal proteins and an insect refuge containing hybrids not expressing insecticidal proteins that produce susceptible insects. Wind-assisted pollen movement in corn occurs readily, and is the primary method of pollination for corn. The combination of pollen movement and viability determines the potential for cross pollination of refuge corn. In 2009 and 2010, cross pollination occurred with the highest frequency on the north and east sides of Bt corn fields, but was found at some level in all directions. Highest levels of cross pollination (75%) were found within the first four rows (3 m) of non-Bt corn adjacent to Bt corn, and in general decreasing levels of cross pollination were found the further the non-Bt corn was planted from the Bt corn. A mosaic of Bt cross-pollinated kernels was found throughout the ear, but in both years the ear tip had the highest percentage of cross-pollinated kernels; this pattern may be linked to the synchrony of pollen shed and silking between Bt and non-Bt corn hybrids. The dominant wind direction in both years was from WNW. However, in both years, there were also prevailing winds from SSW and WSW. Further studies are needed to quantify Bt levels in cross-pollinated kernels, measure the Bt dose of such kernels and associated lepidopteran pest survival, and measure the impact of Bt pollen on lepidopteran pests, particularly when considering the seed mixture refuge configuration.

The beetle Oulema oryzae Kuwayama (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae), an important pest of rice, has developed fipronil resistance in Japan. Molecular cloning and sequence analysis of O. oryzae RDL γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) receptor subunit (OO-RDL) genes from fipronil-susceptible and -resistant O. oryzae identified the A2′S mutation (index number for the M2 membrane-spanning region). To investigate the effect of the A2′S mutation on fipronil resistance, we stably expressed the wild-type and mutant OO-RDL homomers in Drosophila Mel-2 cells. A membrane potential assay exhibited that the IC₅₀ values of fipronil for inhibition of the response to EC₈₀ GABA of the wild-type and A2′S mutant OO-RDL homomers were 0.09 µM and 0.11 µM, respectively. However, the IC₅₀ values of fipronil for inhibition of the response to EC₉₅ GABA of the wild-type and A2′S mutant OO-RDL homomers were 0.11 µM and ≈5 µM, respectively. These results suggest that the GABA concentration is an important factor affecting fipronil resistance in O. oryzae carrying the A2′S mutation in OO-RDL.

Relative increases of bed bug, Cimex lectularius L., populations are probably due in large measure to their resistance to pyrethroids, which have been used extensively against urban pests. A Connecticut population of bed bugs was assessed for sensitivity to pyrethroids and exposed to commonly-used commercial insecticides applied to various substrates on which the residues were allowed to age for 0–24 wk. Type I and type II pyrethroids differed in toxicity when applied at a high dosage (1 µg) per bed bug. Some type II pyrethroids (cyfluthrin, λ-cyhalothrin, cis-cypermethrin, and deltamethrin) caused >80% mortality, whereas exposure to type I pyrethroids caused <5% mortality over 72 h (with one exception, pyrethrins caused 23% mortality). Dust products were not affected by residue aging; mortality response over time of exposure closely fit (R² > 0.95) an exponential rise to a maximum model from which the survival half-life (S_1/2) was calculated directly. Tempo Dust (Bayer Environmental Science, Montvale, NJ) killed bed bugs relatively quickly, as did Syloid 244 (Grace Davison, Columbia, MD) and Drione (Bayer Environmental Science, Montvale, NJ) on hardboard and mattress fabric substrates (S_1/2 < 1 d); DeltaDust (Bayer Environmental Science, Montvale, NJ) provided a relatively slow kill (S_1/2 ≈ 3.5 d). The sprayable pyrethroids, Cyonara 9.7 (Insecticide Control solutions, Pasadena, TX) and D-Force HPX Aerosol 0.06% (Waterbury Companies, Waterbury, CT), displayed reduced residual toxicity as they aged; the mortality was <50% on some substrates after 4 d. Desiccant dusts, with their physical mode of action and long residual activity, appear to be superior to sprayable pyrethroid products for killing bed bugs.

Calliphora nigribarbis Vollenhoven is a possible mechanical transmitter of highly pathogenic avian influenza. Based on laboratory tests, we evaluated the efficacy of a long-lasting permethrin-treated mosquito netting, known as the Olyset net, for the prevention of this species entering livestock barns. Flies were trapped in Olyset net cages, and two statistics for knockdown and lethal efficacies were obtained. Median knockdown time in the cage (KT50) was estimated to be 341 s for females, and median lethal time after exposure to the mesh (LT50) was estimated to be 30 s and <15 s for females and males, respectively. These LT50s were faster than those measured for anesthetized stationary flies brought in contact with the Olyset net (>120 s for both sexes), indicating that a fly's spontaneous contact with the Olyset net accelerates insecticide adhesion. The rate of permethrin adhesion to C. nigribarbis after its spontaneous contact with the Olyset net was estimated to be 3.7 ng/s for females, in reference to the 50% lethal dose (LD₅₀) value (112 ng/female), which was obtained from the topical application bioassay of permethrin. The lethality exhibited after brief spontaneous contact with the Olyset net suggests its potential utility in poultry farms against C. nigribarbis invasion.

The wheat curl mite, Aceria tosichella Keifer, transmits at least three harmful viruses, wheat streak mosaic virus (WSMV), high plains virus (HPV), and Triticum mosaic virus (TriMV) to wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) throughout the Great Plains. This virus complex is considered to be the most serious disease of winter wheat in the western Great Plains. One component of managing this disease has been developing mite resistance in wheat; however, identification of mite biotypes has complicated deployment and stability of resistance. This biotypic variability in mites and differential virus transmission by different mite populations underscores the need to better understand mite identity. However, A. tosichella has a history of serious taxonomic confusion, especially as it relates to A. tulipae Keifer, the dry bulb mite. Molecular techniques were used to genetically characterize multiple A. tosichella populations and compare them to populations of A. tulipae. DNA from these populations was polymerase chain reaction amplified and the ribosomal ITS2 region sequenced and compared. These results indicated limited variability between these two species, but two distinct types within A. tosichella were found that corresponded to previous work with Australian mite populations. Further work using sequencing of several mitochondrial DNA genes also demonstrated two distinct types of A. tosichella populations. Furthermore, the separation between these two A. tosichella types is comparable to their separation with A. tulipae, suggesting that species scale differences exist between these two types of A. tosichella. These genetic differences correspond to important biological differences between the types (e.g., biotypic and virus transmission differences). In light of these differences, it is important that future studies on biological response differences account for these mite differences.

The potato tuberworm, Phthorimaea operculella (Zeller) (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae), is a noxious pest of the potato crop (Solanum tuberosum L.) in both field and storage in tropical and subtropical regions. Survival, development and reproduction of the potato tuberworm was compared on leaves and tubers of 10 common cultivated potato cultivars including Agria, Agata, Aimera, Arinda, Baneba, Fiana, Marfona, Ramus, Satina, and Volvox at 25 ± 1°C, 65 ±5% RH and a photoperiod of 14:10 (L:D) h. The results indicated that there were significant differences in the larval, pupal, and total developmental periods on the various potato cultivars. The total developmental periods varied from 26.6 (on Baneba) to 29.5d (on Marfona), and ranged from 27.9 (on Marfona) to 30.5 d (on Agria) in the experiments on potato leaves and tubers, respectively. Immature survival rates were lowest on Agria (44.1%) and Marfona (40.6%) on potato leaves and tubers, respectively. The highest total fecundity was observed on Arinda (78.3 eggs) and Ramus (154.8 egg) on potato leaves and tubers, respectively. Significantly fewer eggs were laid on Marfona cultivar's leaves (44.6 eggs) and tubers (72.9 eggs) than any of the other tested potato cultivars. The female reproduction potential on potato leaves was significantly lower than on potato tubers. Cluster analysis of the biological parameters of P. operculella on different potato cultivars demonstrated that Marfona is partially resistant to potato tuberworm. The findings on the susceptibility or resistance of potato cultivars could be a fundamental component of integrated pest management programs for potato tuberworm.

Invasion of pests may result in local adaptation and the development of biotypes specialized in different hosts. In this study, we investigated western flower thrips, Frankliniella occidentalis (Pergande), an invasive pest in Europe. Thrips from different commercial glasshouse crops within the Dutch Westland and a lab culture kept on chrysanthemum were compared. Genetic barcoding was applied for the identification of potential western flower thrips cryptic species in the Netherlands revealing that all western flower thrips populations studied belonged to the “glasshouse” strain reported in California as the only existing species in the Netherlands. Feeding and reproduction parameters in leaf disc and whole plant bioassays were scored. We detected significant differences in thrips feeding among host plants and thrips origin. Host plants differed in average thrips damage while thrips from different origins caused similar amounts of damage across host plants. In contrast, reproductive success of thrips on all plant species depended strongly on thrips origin. The thrips lab culture maintained on chrysanthemum obtained the highest levels of reproduction on chrysanthemum. Differences among the other thrips populations were relatively small. Amplified fragment length polymorphisms analyses were used to study genetic differences between western flower thrips populations and confirmed that the lab culture population was also genetically the most different of all studied populations. The results of the amplified fragment length polymorphisms analyses together with the better reproductive performance of thrips on the host plant on which they were maintained demonstrate the evolution of a lab biotype specialized in a particular host. This finding has potential relevance for future crop control and breeding programs.

Studies were conducted across the southern United States to characterize the efficacy of multiple Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) events in a field corn, Zea mays L., hybrid for control of common lepidopteran and coleopteran pests. Cry1F protein in event TC1507 and Cry1A.105 Cry2Ab2 proteins in event MON 89034 were evaluated against pests infesting corn on above-ground plant tissue including foliage, stalks, and ears. Cry34Ab1/Cry35Ab1 proteins in event DAS-59122-7 and Cry3Bb1 in event MON 88017 were evaluated against the larvae of Mexican corn rootworm, Diabrotica virgifera zeae Krysan and Smith, which occur below-ground. Field corn hybrids containing Cry1F, Cry1A.105 Cry2Ab2, Cry34Ab1/Cry35Ab1, and Cry3Bb1 insecticidal proteins (SmartStax) consistently demonstrated reductions in plant injury and/or reduced larval survivorship as compared with a non-Bt field corn hybrid. Efficacy provided by a field corn hybrid with multiple Bt proteins was statistically equal to or significantly better than corn hybrids containing a single event active against target pests. Single event field corn hybrids provided very high levels of control of southwestern corn borer, Diatraea grandiosella (Dyar), lesser cornstalk borer, Elasmopalpus lignosellus (Zeller), and fall armyworm, Spodoptera frugiperda (J.E. Smith), and were not significantly different than field corn hybrids with multiple events. Significant increases in efficacy were observed for a field corn hybrid with multiple Bt events for sugarcane borer, Diatraea saccharalis (F.), beet armyworm, Spodoptera exigua (Hübner), corn earworm, Helicoverpa zea (Boddie), and Mexican corn rootworm. Utilization of field corn hybrids containing multiple Bt events provides a means for managing insect resistance to Bt proteins and reduces non-Bt corn refuge requirements.

The soybean aphid, Aphis glycines Matsumura (Hemiptera: Aphididae), is an economically important pest in the north central United States. In the state of Iowa, economically damaging populations occurred in seven of 11 growing seasons from 2001 to 2011. The high frequency and economic impact of the soybean aphid makes it an ideal candidate for management by using host plant resistance. We compared an aphid-susceptible line to near-isolines that contain Rag1 and Rag2, both alone and pyramided together, to suppress aphid populations and protect yield. Each of four near-isolines, were artificially infested with aphids and grown in small plots in which the exposure to natural enemies was controlled by the use of cages, resulting in the following treatment groups: natural enemy free (only aphids),biocontrol (both aphids and natural enemies), and aphid free (no aphids or natural enemies). The seasonal accumulation of aphids and the population growth rates were measured for each line and an estimate of yield was measured at the end of the season. Soybean aphid population growth rate was reduced 20% by natural enemies alone, 44% by pyramided resistance, and 63% by the combination of natural enemies and pyramided resistance. This reduction in population growth rate resulted in a 99.3% reduction in the pyramid line's seasonal exposure to aphids. In the presence of natural enemies, all three resistant lines maintained aphid populations below the economic injury level and prevented yield loss. This study demonstrates the compatibility of biological control with soybean aphid host plant resistance and its utility, especially for single resistance gene lines.

Peaches and nectarines are frequently attacked by the green peach aphid Myzus persicae (Sulzer), with significant negative impacts on fruit production. The genetic variability of resistance to this aphid among commercial cultivars of Prunus persica (L) Batsch and Prunus persica variety nectarina was evaluated in this study. In total, 16 cultivars of P. persica were selected to evaluate the occurrence and population growth rate of M. persicae in commercial orchards, as well as in no-choice and probing behavior laboratory assays. The results showed variability between cultivars in resistance and susceptibility to M. persicae, with three cultivars exhibiting different signatures of resistance. The peach cultivar ‘Elegant Lady’ exhibited a low occurrence of aphids in the orchard, a low rate of growth, moderate leaf-rejection in a no-choice test and a higher number and longer period of salivation into sieve elements, suggesting resistance at the phloematic level. The nectarine cultivar ‘August Red’ also exhibited low aphid occurrence in the orchard, a low rate of growth, and resistance at the prephloem and phloem levels. Finally, the nectarine ‘July Red-NS92’ exhibited a low occurrence of aphids in the orchard, a higher number of rejections in no-choice assays and no ingestion of phloem during the probing behavior experiments, suggesting prephloematic resistance. The rest of the cultivars studied exhibited clear susceptibility. Hence, different resistance mechanisms are apparent among the studied cultivars. The information gathered in this study regarding the resistance to M. persicae may assist breeding programs aimed at increasing aphid resistance to peaches and nectarines.

In the quantitative estimation of the effectiveness of pesticides and repellents, Abbott's correction and similar methods have been used for nearly a century. However, the formulas for such corrections have some disadvantages in performing range estimations and being used in batched experiments. These disadvantages also exist in the estimation of EC₅₀, the chemical concentration that produces 50% mortality. In this study, I propose as a solution to these problems a Bayesian estimation with a logistic model. This method enables the flexible modeling of non-normal variables in complex experimental design, for example, life-death response in a batched experiment. Furthermore, if any knowledge about focal phenomena exists, it can be used in analyses as a prior distribution, thus enhancing the accuracy of the estimation.

We examined the ability of five isolates of Bacillus thuringiensis Berliner to cause mortality in adult stable flies, Stomoxys calcitrans (L.). Isolates Bacillus thuringiensis tolworthi 4L3 (serotype 9), Bacillus thuringiensis darmstadiensis 4M1 (serotype 10a10b), Bacillus thuringiensis thompsoni 4O1 (serotype 12), Bacillus thuringiensis thuringiensis HD2 (serotype 1), and Bacillus thuringiensis kurstaki HD945 (serotype 3a3b3c) were administered to adult flies in diets containing blood only, sugar only, and both sugar and blood combined. B. t. tolworthi 4L3 had no effect on adult mortality regardless of the feeding substrate. The remaining isolates tended to cause the greatest mortality when administered in blood alone. B. t. thompsoni 4O1 was the only isolate that consistently caused adult mortality when fed in blood at concentrations ranging from 0.21 to 50.0 µg of protein per ml of blood. This isolate also caused mortality when applied topically. The time to 50% mortality declined with dose and reached a lower asymptote at ≈1.3 d at an oral dose of 8.75 µg/ml and at a topical dose of 0.14 µg per fly.