Few individuals or governments have suggested that invasions by nonindigenous species are relevant to the broader issue of human security, despite a growing awareness of the ecological, economic, and societal impacts associated with invasive nonindigenous species (INIS). We propose that by framing management actions in a human and environmental security context, the threats (and benefits) posed by INIS to individuals and communities can be explicitly articulated and debated. This framework allows multiple stakeholders to bring their concerns to bear upon specific policy, and attempts to integrate broad environmental concerns within its parameters. We use the case of ecosystem-based management of invasive nonindigenous plants as an example of the utility of a human security framework. The dominant management approach to these species remains focused on the individual species, despite increasing calls for the implementation of ecosystem-based management strategies. Ecosystem-based management is supported by generalized and widely accepted mechanisms of plant community dynamics, such as succession, disturbance, and interspecific competition, but these scientific arguments do not consistently carry weight at the policy level and with the broader public. A human security framework may provide an approach for overcoming this resistance by placing the debate over management within the social and political context of the wider community. Overall, human security can allow applied ecologists to be better positioned to meet the challenges of communicating the need for science-based management.

The herbicide imazapic is registered for use on rangelands and provides effective short-term control of certain invasive annual grasses. However, details about optimal application rates for downy brome and susceptibility of simultaneously seeded species are lacking. Thus, we investigated downy brome and seeded species responses to variable rates of imazapic (0, 35, 70, 105, and 140 g ai/ha) in two plant communities (salt desert shrub and Wyoming big sagebrush). In autumn 2003, plots were treated with imazapic and seeded with one of five perennial plant materials (Siberian wheatgrass [‘Vavilov’ and the experimental source Kazak]; prostrate kochia [‘Immigrant’ and the experimental source 6X], and Russian wildrye [‘Bozoisky II’]). Downy brome cover and seeded species establishment were evaluated in spring 2004 and 2006. Downy brome cover in 2004 decreased with increasing imazapic rate at both sites, although more so at the Wyoming big sagebrush site. In 2006, no difference in downy brome cover existed among herbicide rates at the Wyoming big sagebrush site. At the salt desert shrub site, the high rate of imazapic reduced downy brome cover by about 25% compared to untreated plots. ‘Vavilov’ Siberian wheatgrass was the only seeded species with lower downy brome cover in 2006 than 2004. Seeded species establishment increased with imazapic rate in the salt desert shrub community, but in the Wyoming big sagebrush community it peaked at intermediate rates and declined at higher rates. Variation in downy brome control and seeded species establishment might have been associated with differences in precipitation, soil organic matter, and disturbance history between sites. Overall, imazapic was useful for helping establish desirable perennial species, but unless downy brome is reduced below a critical threshold, favorable precipitation can return sites to pretreatment levels within two years.

Nomenclature: Imazapic; downy brome, Bromus tectorum L. BROTE; Siberian wheatgrass, Agropyron fragile (Roth) P. Candargy; Russian wildrye, Psathyrostachys juncea (Fisch.) Nevski; prostrate kochia, Bassia prostrata (L.) A. J. Scott; Wyoming big sagebrush, Artemisia tridentata Nutt. var. wyomingensis (Beetle & Young) S. L. Welsh. Nomenclature of all plants follow the USDA–NRCS PLANTS database ( http://plants.usda.gov/).

Total nonstructural carbohydrate (TNC) reserves support growth, formation of reproductive structures, and sprouting of plant tissues, and nitrogen (N) is essential for amino acid synthesis and photosynthetic enzyme production. Timing of weed management to periods when these critical resources are most limiting might improve efficacy. We examined seasonal changes in carbohydrate and nitrogen concentrations in Brazilian egeria (Egeria densa), a common submersed aquatic weed, from two locations in the United States. Plants were collected from a coastal Oregon reservoir and from California's Central Valley in the Sacramento–San Joaquin Delta. Starch comprised between 35 to 51% of the TNC in lower stems and root crowns. Seasonal changes in resource concentrations were not consistent between years within a population or for the same plant part between different populations. Lowest TNC concentrations were observed earlier in the growing season (March) in Disappointment Slough than in Big Creek (May to June). Conversely, highest concentrations were observed in October in Disappointment Sough and from August to March in Big Creek. Nitrogen concentrations were highest in stem tips in both populations, with more distinct seasonal changes in the California population. These data suggest western populations of E. densa might exhibit less-discernible low points in root crown and lower stem energy storage for targeting management activities to vulnerable phenological stages. Brazilian egeria has high phenological plasticity despite its low genetic diversity and lack of specialized reproductive and perennating structures, which allows the plant to invade and dominate submersed plant communities in areas with mild winters.

Nomenclature: Brazilian egeria, Egeria densa Planch. ELDDE.

Since the 1950s, many south Texas rangelands have been seeded with buffelgrass, a perennial C₄ bunchgrass native to Africa that is believed to contribute to reductions in biodiversity. Forb species represent a critical habitat component throughout the breeding period for many wildlife species as seed (summer to fall), as green vegetative material (spring to summer), and as habitat for arthropods (spring to summer). Reductions in richness and diversity of crucial ecosystem components such as forbs and arthropods have large implications for grassland birds and other wildlife. We sampled annual and perennial forbs within 1-m² quadrats on 15 study plots (1 ha; n  =  20 quadrats/plot) at Chaparral Wildlife Management Area, in LaSalle and Dimmit counties, Texas, during 2005 and 2006. Study plots were divided into five light-buffelgrass plots (0 to 5% buffelgrass canopy coverage), five moderate-buffelgrass plots (5 to 25% buffelgrass canopy coverage), and five heavy-buffelgrass plots (> 25% buffelgrass canopy coverage). Buffelgrass in study plots was composed of naturalized plants, and was not deliberately planted. During 2005 we observed that plots with > 25% buffelgrass had a 73% reduction in forb canopy of native species, a 64% reduction in native forb species richness, and a 77% reduction in native forb stem density compared to plots with 0 to 5% buffelgrass. These trends in native forb reduction (−79% native forb canopy, −65% forb species richness, −80% forb stem density) were nearly identical in 2006, even with greatly reduced rainfall. Simple linear regression revealed negative relationships between buffelgrass cover, total exotic grass cover (buffelgrass and Lehmann lovegrass), and total grass cover and the richness, coverage, and density of forbs/m². Reductions in diversity may have larger implications regarding ecosystem function and available useable space and densities of desired bird species such as northern bobwhite.

Nomenclature: Buffelgrass, Pennisetum ciliare (L.) Link; Lehmann lovegrass, Eragrostis lehmanniana Nees.

Seed persistence is poorly quantified for invasive plants of subtropical and tropical environments and Lantana camara, one of the world's worst weeds, is no exception. We investigated germination, seedling emergence, and seed survival of two lantana biotypes (Pink and pink-edged red [PER]) in southeastern Queensland, Australia. Controlled experiments were undertaken in 2002 and repeated in 2004, with treatments comprising two differing environmental regimes (irrigated and natural rainfall) and sowing depths (0 and 2 cm). Seed survival and seedling emergence were significantly affected by all factors (time, biotype, environment, sowing depth, and cohort) (P < 0.001). Seed dormancy varied with treatment (environment, sowing depth, biotype, and cohort) (P < 0.001), but declined rapidly after 6 mo. Significant differential responses by the two biotypes to sowing depth and environment were detected for both seed survival and seedling emergence (P < 0.001). Seed mass was consistently lower in the PER biotype at the population level (P < 0.001), but this variation did not adequately explain the differential responses. Moreover, under natural rainfall the magnitude of the biotype effect was unlikely to result in ecologically significant differences. Seed survival after 36 mo under natural rainfall ranged from 6.8 to 21.3%. Best fit regression analysis of the decline in seed survival over time yielded a five-parameter exponential decay model with a lower asymptote approaching −0.38 (% seed survival  =  [( 55 − (−0.38)) · e ^{(k · t)}] −0.38; R²  =  88.5%; 9 df). Environmental conditions and burial affected the slope parameter or k value significantly (P < 0.01). Seed survival projections from the model were greatest for buried seeds under natural rainfall (11 yr) and least under irrigation (3 yr). Experimental data and model projections suggest that lantana has a persistent seed bank and this should be considered in management programs, particularly those aimed at eradication.

Nomenclature: Lantana, Lantana camara L.

Using biological control agents to restore native habitats degraded by exotic plants should decrease the abundance of the invaders but should also result in a return toward preinvasion levels of native diversity. However, there are few long-term studies documenting changes in native biological diversity with the decline of an invader. We introduced a biocontrol flea beetle into three Montana grassland sites dominated by leafy spurge and monitored changes in leafy spurge abundance and frequency of associated vascular plants in 48 permanent microplots, in a 530 or 1,960 m² macroplot immediately before and 14 yr after the release. Density and mass of leafy spurge declined 60 and 69%, respectively, over the 14 yr of the study across the three sites. Total species richness increased by 1.2 species/microplot (21%) between 1994 and 2008 across all three sites, but the increase differed among sites. Mean richness of exotic species was virtually unchanged across the three sites over the course of the study. Graminoid species richness was virtually unchanged across the three sites over the course of the study; most of the increase in diversity was due to the increase in forb richness at all three sites. Release of the biocontrol insects and a subsequent large reduction of leafy spurge were associated with an increase in native diversity after 14 yr, although causality cannot be confidently inferred from these associations because there were no controls. The increase in native diversity was small relative to the decline in leafy spurge abundance, suggesting that significant increases of native alpha diversity in semiarid grasslands may require many decades. Our results also suggest that the response to a decline of an invading species may depend on site quality and history.

Nomenclature: Flea beetle, Aphthona nigriscutis Foudras; leafy spurge, Euphorbia esula L.

Manipulating plant litter to direct successional trajectories is rarely considered as a management strategy. Our objective was to determine the influence of litter from an intact native plant community on a community dominated by an invasive species within the same habitat type as well as the influence of litter from a community dominated by an invasive species on an intact native plant community. We hypothesized that litter amount, type (source), and fragment size would influence various functional groups within a native plant community differently than within a weed-dominated plant community. We used reciprocal plant litter exchanges between native and invasive plant–dominated grasslands to gain an initial understanding of litter's influence on the density and biomass of native grasses, native forbs, common St. Johnswort, and downy brome. Common St. Johnswort was not influenced by any treatment. Native grass density increased with application of low (454 g/m²) amounts of litter where the grasses were subordinate to common St. Johnswort, and adding native plant litter to the weedy site nearly doubled native grass biomass. Low amounts of finely fragmented litter and high amounts of coarse litter induced native forbs to produce about twice the biomass as found in the non–litter-amended controls. Our study suggests that plant litter may be a component of vegetation that can be managed to shift the plant community toward those plants that are desired.

Nomenclature: Downy brome, Bromus tectorum L., common St. Johnswort, Hypericum perforatum L.

The magnitude of the invasive plant species problem necessitates prioritization of species for control, regulatory, and public-education programs. Many such priority lists exist but few have been developed according to specified procedures and criteria. We reviewed approaches to assessing the status of nonnative plant species currently occurring in natural areas (status assessments). We identify four generalized types of status assessments, which reflect a gradation from those that simply adopt existing lists from elsewhere (type 1), to those with relatively easy and rapid development and implementation (type 2), to those that are more time-consuming and costly but may be more robust in the face of challenges (types 3 and 4). These latter assessments explicitly have greater transparency, objectivity, and consistency than the other types. We use a matrix of assessment characteristics to distinguish the types of 17 example status assessments. We also review the factors related to assessment intent, scope, structure, content, and implementation that must be considered during the development of new status assessments so that the resulting tool and its products are appropriate for the user's purposes. These analyses should facilitate evaluation of different assessment methods and provide a basis for development of improved assessments. Identification of the relatively low percentage of nonnative plant species that are inflicting ecological and economic harm using well-understood and accepted assessment methods should facilitate a more comprehensive, collective approach to implementation of effective management efforts.

Nomenclature: Invasive plants, alien, exotic, introduced species, status assessments.

Garlic mustard seeds are dormant at maturity, and 90 to 105 d of cold-moist stratification at 4 C have been used to induce germination. We studied methods for breaking dormancy and inducing germination without cold stratification, for use in laboratory and greenhouse experiments with garlic mustard. Seeds were collected from large infestations, stored at room temperature, and subjected to chemical and mechanical scarification treatments. For chemical scarification, seeds were immersed in 3% (v/v) H₂O₂ for 12, 24, or 48 h with constant stirring, or immersed in concentrated (95 to 97%) H₂SO₄ for 1 or 5 min with stirring. For mechanical scarification, seeds were placed in a sandpaper-lined tumbler for 1 or 3 s. Scarified seeds, along with non-scarified seeds, were placed in petri dishes on germination blotters saturated with gibberellic acid (GA₃, 10⁻³ M) or deionized water, and incubated for 35 d at either 20/10 C or 15/6 C (12 hr/12 hr). None of the non-scarified seeds germinated, regardless of germination solution or temperature. Seeds germinated only following scarification, and only when imbibed in GA₃ solutions. Seeds immersed in H₂SO₄ for 5 min or mechanically scarified for 3 s had the highest level of germination in GA₃. Cumulative percent germination after 35 d was greater for seeds stored 30 mo (44 to 83%), than for seeds stored 6 (2 to 60%) or 18 mo (35 to 79%), regardless of scarification treatment. The germination results, along with scanning electron micrographs of seed coats, suggest that the intact garlic mustard seed coat is permeable to water but not GA₃; therefore, both scarification and GA₃ are needed to break dormancy and induce germination without cold stratification.

Nomenclature: Garlic mustard, Alliaria petiolata (Bieb.) Cavara and Grande.