The capacity to predict the geographic distribution and relative abundance of invasive species is pivotal to developing policy for eradication or control and management. Commonly used methods fall under the ambit of ecological niche models (ENMs). These methods were reviewed and shortcomings identified. Weather-driven physiologically based demographic models (PBDMs) are proposed that resolve many of the deficiencies of ENMs. The PBDM approach is used to analyze the invasiveness of the polyphagous glassy-winged sharpshooter (Homalodisca vitripennis [Germar]), a pest native to the southeastern United States and northeastern Mexico that extended its range into California in 1989. Glassy-winged sharpshooter vectors the pathogenic bacterium, Xylella fastidiosa (Wells) that causes Pierce's disease in grape and scorch-like diseases in other plants. PBDMs for glassy-winged sharpshooter and its egg parasitoids (Gonatocerus ashmeadi Girault and G. triguttatus Girault) were developed and linked to a PBDM for grape published by Wermelinger et al. (1991). Daily weather data from 108 locations across California for the period 1995–2006 were used to drive the PBDM system, and GRASS GIS was used to map the simulation results. The geographic distribution of glassy-winged sharpshooter, as observed, is predicted to be largely restricted to the warm areas of southern California, with the action of the two egg parasitoids reducing its abundance >90%. The average indispensable mortality contributed by G. triguttatus is <1%. A temperature-dependent developmental rate model for X. fastidiosa was developed that suggests its geographic range is also limited to the warm inland areas of southern California. Biological control of glassy-winged sharpshooter further decreases the pathogen's relative range. Climate warming scenarios of 2°C and 3°C suggest that the distribution and severity of glassy-winged sharpshooter and X. fastidiosa will increase in the agriculturally rich central valley of California. The utility of holistic analyses for formulating control policy and tactics for invasive species is discussed.

This study tested expectations of the palatable forage hypothesis for Atta sexdens (L). Literature records on Atta and Acromyrmex nest density in the Neotropics were analyzed and A. sexdens demographical aspects were studied in six transects located along the Colombian Amazon River. Literature research results did not show that Atta and Acromyrmex nest densities are consistently higher in disturbed habitats. In transects, 56 active and 182 inactive nests were found in 2008. Higher active nest numbers and densities were determined for 1992, 1999, and 2006. Nests were present in old forest, in agricultural plot and grassland secondary forest, and absent from open spaces around houses, grasslands, agricultural plots, and a particular sector of old forest. Nest densities were higher in secondary forest. Between 1992 and 2008, the size of disturbed areas increased, whereas nest numbers and densities diminished. Average nest age was higher in secondary forest, but maximum nest age was comparable in the three habitats. On average, nests were superficially larger in old forest. Nests were mostly established in old forest, at sites without fallen trees. Almost all of those currently present in secondary forest were established in old forest before any disturbance occurred. In disturbed habitats, nest inactivity was slightly higher and possibly affected by human control efforts. This study suggested that the palatable forage hypothesis alone did not explain observed demographic patterns. Soil physiochemical variables or microclimatic conditions also are thought to play important roles in determining A. sexdens demography.

Temperate insect species are predicted to fare better in the face of climate change, because of their wider temperature tolerance, than are tropical species. Predictions are less certain, however, for temperate species with narrow temperature optima. Larvae of the sawfly Neodiprion edulicolus Ross are susceptible to cold weather and rarely occur above 1,900 m elevation near Sunset Crater, AZ, even though their host trees (Pinus edulis Englemann) are abundant up to 2,300 m. During 12 yr of monitoring, the population of sawflies below 1,850 m declined significantly in years when April minimum temperatures were either unusually low or unusually high. Sawfly larvae transferred to host trees above 1,900 m were unable to sustain populations despite abundant host trees and high survival of transferred larvae. Cold temperatures delayed and thereby disrupted the sawfly life cycle. Overall, limited temperature tolerance of N. edulicolus larvae was the most likely cause of the decline of this sawfly population between 1994 and 2006. If April minimum temperatures continue to rise on average and interannual variation remains the same, the frequency of suboptimal high temperatures will increase. Soon, N. edulicolus, along with other species with narrow temperature optima, may be forced to disperse, adapt exceptionally quickly, or face extinction.

Understanding pathogen transmission could illuminate new methods for disease prevention. A case in point is chalkbrood in the alfalfa leafcutting bee [Megachile rotundata (F.)]. Propagation of this solitary bee is severely hampered by chalkbrood, a larval disease caused by Ascosphaera aggregata (Ascomycota). Alfalfa leafcutting bees nest in existing cavities in wood or hollow reeds and overwinter as larvae. In the early summer, emerging adults frequently must chew through dead, diseased siblings that block their exit, becoming contaminated with chalkbrood spores in the process. When alfalfa leafcutting bees are used as a commercial pollinator, the cocoons are removed from nesting boards to reduce chalkbrood transmission, but the disease is still common. To determine if these removed cocoons (called loose cells) are an important source of disease transmission, they were disinfected with a fungicide before bees were incubated, and released in the field. Chalkbrood prevalence among the progeny of the treated bees was reduced up to 50% in one field trial, but not significantly when tested in an on-farm trial. Thus, substantial disease transmission still occurred when the loose cells were disinfected, and even when clean nesting materials were used. In conclusion, pathogen transmission must still be occurring from another source that has yet to be identified. Another possible source of transmission could arise from bees that emerge midsummer in populations with a high percent of multivoltinism, but dirty nesting boards and feral bees also may be minor sources of transmission.

Psocids of genus Liposcelis are now considered serious pests of stored products. We investigated the effects of eight temperatures (22.5, 25.0, 27.5, 30.0, 32.5, 35.0, 37.5, and 40.0°C) and four relative humidities (43, 55, 63, and 75%) on population growth and development of the psocid Liposcelis pearmani Lienhard. L. pearmani did not survive at 37.5 and 40.0°C, at all relative humidities tested; at 43% RH, at all temperatures tested; and at 55% RH, at 32.5 and 35°C. The greatest population growth was recorded at 32.5°C and 75% RH (32-fold growth). L. pearmani males have two to four nymphal instars, and the percentages of males with two, three, and four instars were 17, 63, and 20%, respectively. Female L. pearmani have two to five instars, and the percentages of females with two, three, four, and five instars were 5, 39, 55, and 1%, respectively. We developed temperature-dependent development equations for male and female eggs, individual nymphal, combined nymphal, and combined immature stages. Based on 30-d population growth, L. pearmani cannot survive at temperatures >35.0°C; does not thrive at low relative humidities (55%), at temperatures above 25°C; and has a high optimum relative humidity for population growth (75%). Therefore, we expect it to have a more limited distribution compared with other Liposcelis species. These data provide a better understanding of how temperature and RH may influence L. pearmani population dynamics and can be used in population growth models to help develop effective management strategies for this psocid, and to predict its occurrence.

Logging is the main human disturbance in the boreal forest; thus, understanding the effects of harvesting practices on biodiversity is essential for a more sustainable forestry. To assess changes in spider composition because of harvesting, samples were collected from three forest layers (overstory, understory, and ground) of deciduous and conifer dominated stands in the northwestern Canadian boreal mixedwood forest. Spider assemblages and feeding guild composition were compared between uncut controls and stands harvested to 20% retention. In total, 143 spider species were collected, 74 from the ground, 60 from the understory, and 71 from the overstory, and species composition of these three pools differed considerably among layers. Distinctive spider assemblages were collected from the canopy of each forest cover type but these were only slightly affected by harvesting. However, logging had a greater impact on the species composition in the understory and ground layers when compared with unharvested controls. Guild structure differed among layers, with wandering and sheet-weaving spiders dominant on the ground while orb-weaving and ambush spiders were better represented in the understory and overstory, respectively. Given the ecological importance of spiders and the expectation of faunal changes with increased harvesting, further efforts toward the understanding of species composition in higher strata of the boreal forest are needed.

A survey was conducted during 2009–2010 seasons to identify the distribution of Bemisia tabaci (Gennadius) biotypes in Tunisia. The genetic affiliation of collected populations was determined by polymerase chain reaction (PCR)-restriction fragment-length polymorphism (TaqI) of the mitochondrial cytochrom oxidase I (mtCOI) gene. Results, validated by sequencing and phylogenetic analysis, allowed the clustering of sampled sweetpotato whiteflies into B and Q biotypes. As B. tabaci harbors the obligatory bacterium Portiera aleyrodidarum, and a diverse array of secondary symbionts including Rickettsia, Hamiltonella, Wolbachia, Cardinium, Arsenophonus, and Fritschea, we report here the infectious status of Tunisian populations by secondary symbionts to find out a correlation between bacterial composition to biotype. The genetic variability and structure of B. tabaci populations in Tunisia was driven by analysis of molecular variance (AMOVA) and the hypothesis of isolation by distance was explored. Selective neutrality and genetic haplotype network tests suggested that Tunisian sweetpotato whiteflies have been undergoing a potential expansion followed by gene flow restriction.

Previous research using mitochondrial haplotypes indicates that North American populations of cabbage seedpod weevil, Ceutorhynchus obstrictus (Marsham), originated from at least two separate introductions from source populations in Eurasia. We tested this hypothesis by comparing the genetic variation of symbiotic Wolbachia bacteria in C. obstrictus among seven North American and four European populations. Because Wolbachia are maternally inherited, infections acquired by a host species at one geographic location theoretically may be present in derivative populations that have established in new regions. Use of the conserved MLST Wolbachia genes gatB, coxA, hcpA, fbpA, and ftsZ identified one strain present in all beetles. Use of the variable wsp gene identified three distinct isolates of this strain that appear to co-occur in all populations and potentially in all individuals. Use of the variable wspB gene provided independent support for the presence of these isolates and evidence of a wspB pseudogene. The lack of genetic variation for these Wolbachia genes among host populations prevents their use to clarify the origins of C. obstrictus in North America. However, the results are an interesting example illustrating disjunction in genetic variation between mitochondria and a maternally-inherited symbiont.

Temperature has strong effects on metabolic processes of individuals and demographics of populations, but effects on ecological communities are not well known. Many economically and ecologically important pest species have obligate associations with other organisms; therefore, effects of temperature on these species might be mediated by strong interactions. The southern pine beetle (Dendroctonus frontalis Zimmermann) harbors a rich community of phoretic mites and fungi that are linked by many strong direct and indirect interactions, providing multiple pathways for temperature to affect the system. We tested the effects of temperature on this community by manipulating communities within naturally infested sections of pine trees. Direct effects of temperature on component species were conspicuous and sometimes predictable based on single-species physiology, but there were also strong indirect effects of temperature via alteration of species interactions that could not have been predicted based on autecological temperature responses. Climatic variation, including directional warming, will likely influence ecological systems through direct physiological effects as well as indirect effects through species interactions.

This study assessed the effect of parasitism of Nephus includens (Col: Coccinellidae) larvae by Homalotylus flaminius (Hym.: Encyrtidae) on the predation rates of the predator on the cotton aphid, Aphis gossypii Glover (Hem.: Aphididae) by deriving functional responses for secondand fourth-instar predators at prey densities ranging from 10 to 80 aphids per arena. The relationship between the functional and numerical responses of adult females of N. includens also was determined for prey densities ranging from 10 to 140 aphids per arena. Predation rates of unparasitized and parasitized second-instar N. includens were both fit by a type II functional response model with parameters as follows: unparasitized (a = 0.0768 hours^-1 and T_h = 0.975 h) and parasitized (a = 0.0787 hours^-1 and T_h = 0.8823 hours). Predation rates of unparasitized and parasitized fourth-instar N. includens were fit by type III and II models, respectively, with the following parameters: unparasitized (b = 0.1702 hours^-1 and T_h = 0.2369 hours) and parasitized (a = 0.038 h^-1 and T_h = 0.539 h). The unparasitized fourth-instar was the most voracious stage, having the highest attack rate and lowest handling time. Considering these attributes, it would seem to be the most effective stage of this predator against A. gossypii. Adult female lady beetles (N. includens) showed a type III functional response and their numerical response increase to prey density was curvilinearly related to prey density, with the highest number of eggs being produced at highest prey densities. The maximum saturation level for both predation and egg production for adult females occurred at a prey density of 120 aphids. Thus, a ratio 1:120 (predator:prey) should be used when releasing this species for augmentative biological control. Release of either fourth-instar or adult stage N. includens should be minimized the potentially negative effect of parasitism by H. flaminius on early developmental stages, and hence increase its efficiency in biocontrol programs.

In 2003, the invasive fruit fly Bactrocera invadens Drew, Tsuruta & White (Diptera: Tephritidae) (Drew et al. 2005), of possible Sri Lankan origin, has been detected in the East and about 1 yr later in West Africa. In regular surveys in Benin and Cameroon covering 4 yr, samples from 117 plant species across 43 families have been obtained. Incubation of field-collected fruits demonstrate that in West and Central Africa (WCA) B. invadens is highly polyphagous, infesting wild and cultivated fruits of at least 46 species from 23 plant families with guava (Psidium spp.), mango (Mangifera spp.), and citrus (spp.), and the wild hosts tropical almond (Terminalia catappa L.), African wild mango (Irvingia gabonensis (Aubry-Lecomte) Baill.), and sheanut (Vitellaria paradoxa C.F.Gaertn.) showing the highest infestation index. B. invadens occurs in 22 countries of WCA with new records for Angola, Central African Republic, the Congo, DR Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Gambia, Guinea Bissau, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, and Sierra Leone. Overall, the pest has spread across a North-South distance of ≈5,000 km representing a contiguous area of >8.3 million km² within WCA. B. invadens has adapted to a wide range of ecological and climatic conditions extending from low land rainforest to dry savanna. Because of its highly destructive and invasive potential, B. invadens poses a serious threat to horticulture in Africa if left uncontrolled. Moreover, the presence of this quarantine pest causes considerable restrictions on international trade of affected crops.

In the last 50 yr, the role of vision in insect interactions with host plants has received relatively little attention. This lack of research is associated with a number of assumptions about chemical cues being the ultimate sensory determinants of host finding. This article presents arguments and detailed evidence to refute these assumptions. Insects from essentially all phytophagous orders use vision for locating host plants, and some recent examples have shown that vision can be even more important than olfaction. Moreover, a number of insects have the ability to visually differentiate host species. This ability means that the visual capabilities of phytophagous insects should not be underestimated. Visual cues always should be considered and integrated into studies of host finding.

We studied the adult ambulatory response of the predator, Laricobius nigrinus Fender (Coleoptera: Derodontidae), to odors from its prey, Adelges tsugae Annand, the hemlock woolly adelgid, and foliage of hemlock woolly adelgid, host hemlocks (Tsuga spp.), and other conifers. Both the predator and hemlock woolly adelgid are apparently native to western North America, but the predator is being released in the eastern United States, which has different hemlock species, for biological control of a lineage of hemlock woolly adelgid inadvertently introduced from Japan. L. nigrinus responded to odors from hemlock woolly adelgid host trees, but not to odors from hemlock woolly adelgid. L. nigrinus collected from hemlock woolly adelgid-infested western hemlock were more strongly attracted to odors from western hemlock [Tsuga heterophylla (Rafinesque) Sargent] than eastern hemlock [Tsuga canadensis (L.) Carrière] in most trials. Odors from western white pine (Pinus monticola Douglas ex D. Don) and white spruce [Picea glauca (Moench) Voss] were as attractive as western hemlock odors whereas odors from Douglas-fir [Pseudotsuga menziesii variety menziesii (Mirbel)] and ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa Douglas ex Lawson) were avoided. L. nigrinus reared on hemlock woolly adelgid-infested eastern hemlock in the laboratory were lethargic and were not attracted to either eastern or western hemlock odors. Predators collected in the field and tested monthly from December to March responded similarly each month, except February, when they flew rather than walked in the olfactometer, suggesting a period of dispersal or mate finding at that time of year. The implications of these results for programs to release L. nigrinus in the eastern United States for control of hemlock woolly adelgid are discussed.

Populations of several thrips species were estimated using yellow sticky traps in an orchard planted with mango, Mangifera indica L. during the dry and wet seasons beginning in late 2008–2009 on Penang Island, Malaysia. To determine the efficacy of using sticky traps to monitor thrips populations, we compared weekly population estimates on yellow sticky traps with thrips population sizes that were determined (using a CO₂ method) directly from mango panicles. Dispersal distance and direction of thrips movement out of the orchard also were studied using yellow sticky traps placed at three distances from the edge of the orchard in four cardinal directions facing into the orchard. The number of thrips associated with the mango panicles was found to be correlated with the number of thrips collected using the sticky trap method. The number of thrips captured by the traps decreased with increasing distance from the mango orchard in all directions. Density of thrips leaving the orchard was related to the surrounding vegetation. Our results demonstrate that sticky traps have the potential to satisfactorily estimate thrips populations in mango orchards and thus they can be effectively employed as a useful tactic for sampling thrips.

Observations at regular intervals of the location of newly hatched grape root borer, Vitacea polistiformis (Harris), larvae moving freely within circular petri dish bioassays were used to measure and compare their response to dry filter paper discs treated with ethanol- or hexane-based extracts of roots from known and potential Vitaceae hosts and a nonhost. Larvae responded most strongly to discs treated with ethanol extracts, suggesting the presence of behaviorally active, polar compounds associated with roots. In single extract bioassays comparing extract versus solvent treated discs, larvae responded positively to ethanol extracts from all Vitis species and rootstocks and Virginia creeper [Parthenocissus quinquefolia (L.) Planch.], but not to apple (Malus domestica Borkh). Paired extract bioassays, in which an extract from the commercially important 3309 rootstock was used as the standard and presented simultaneously with extracts from other root sources, revealed examples of equal, significantly weaker and significantly stronger responses to the 3309 extract. Extracts of the 420 A and V. riparia ‘Gloire’ rootstocks appeared to possess qualities that elicited a consistently greater response than to 3309 extract in these pair-wise comparisons. The active compounds were eluted in ethanol during a 30-min extraction; larvae responded equally to 30- and 60-min 3309 root extracts in paired extract bioassays. Larvae responded equally to extracts of 3309 roots from three spatially separate vineyards in northern Virginia. These results are discussed in relation to the subterranean, plant-insect interactions of grape root borer neonates with the numerous native and non-native Vitis species that may serve as hosts in the eastern United States.

Two synthetic sex pheromones have been developed and are currently used to detect the flight of the pecan nut casebearer, Acrobasis nuxvorella Neunzig, the most damaging pest of pecan [Carya illinoinensis (Wangenh.) K. Koch]. One pheromone (referred to as standard) is attractive to moths in the southern United States, but not in Mexico. The other pheromone (referred to as Mexican) is attractive to moths in the southern United States and in Mexico. These two pheromones have been implemented by producers as an important tool in monitoring the activity of this pest and have allowed for more efficient pesticide use. In the future, these pheromones could be used as a means of population reduction through pheromone based control methods. Trapping data taken over a 3-yr period were used to determine if phenological differences exist between pheromone types of pecan nut casebearer. The relative abundance of each pheromone type at several locations in the United States also was evaluated. Results of this study indicate that no phenological differences exist between the two pheromone types studied in the United States and that significantly more males are attracted to field-deployed pheromone traps baited with the standard pheromone than to traps baited with the Mexican pheromone.

Flower thrips (Frankliniella spp.) are one of the key pests of southern highbush blueberries (Vaccinium corymbosum L. x V. darrowii Camp), a high-value crop in Florida. Thrips' feeding and oviposition injury to flowers can result in fruit scarring that renders the fruit unmarketable. Flower thrips often form areas of high population, termed “hot spots”, in blueberry plantings. The objective of this study was to model thrips spatial distribution patterns with geostatistical techniques. Semivariogram models were used to determine optimum trap spacing and two commonly used interpolation methods, inverse distance weighting (IDW) and ordinary kriging (OK), were compared for their ability to model thrips spatial patterns. The experimental design consisted of a grid of 100 white sticky traps spaced at 15.24-m and 7.61-m intervals in 2008 and 2009, respectively. Thirty additional traps were placed randomly throughout the sampling area to collect information on distances shorter than the grid spacing. The semivariogram analysis indicated that, in most cases, spacing traps at least 28.8 m apart would result in spatially independent samples. Also, the 7.61-m grid spacing captured more of the thrips spatial variability than the 15.24-m grid spacing. IDW and OK produced maps with similar accuracy in both years, which indicates that thrips spatial distribution patterns, including “hot spots,” can be modeled using either interpolation method. Future studies can use this information to determine if the formation of “hot spots” can be predicted using flower density, temperature, and other environmental factors. If so, this development would allow growers to spot treat the “hot spots” rather than their entire field.

Analysis by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS) of volatiles from virgin female emerald ash borer, Agrilus planipennis Fairmaire confirmed the emission of (3Z)-lactone [(3Z)-dodecen-12-olide] but not its geometric isomer, (3E)-lactone [(3E)-dodecen-12-olide]. Gas chromatographic/electroantennographic (GC/EAD) analysis of synthetic (3Z)-lactone, which contained 10% (3E) -lactone, showed a strong response of male and female antennae to both isomers. EAG analysis with 0.01 - to100-µg dosages showed a positive dose response, with females giving significantly higher responses than males. In field experiments with sticky purple prism traps, neither lactone isomer affected catches when combined with ash foliar or cortical volatiles (green leaf volatiles or Phoebe oil, respectively). However, on green prism traps, the (3Z)-lactone significantly increased capture of male A. planipennis when traps were deployed in the canopy. Captures of males on traps with both (3E)-lactone and (3Z)-hexenol or with (3Z)-lactone and (3Z)-hexenol were increased by 45–100%, respectively, compared with traps baited with just (3Z)-hexenol. In olfactometer bioassays, males were significantly attracted to (3E) -lactone, but not the (3Z) -lactone or a 60:40 (3E): (3Z) blend. The combination of either (3E)- or (3Z)-lactone with Phoebe oil was not significantly attractive to males. Males were highly attracted to (3Z)-hexenol and the (3Z)-lactone (3Z)-hexenol combination, providing support for the field trapping results. These data are the first to demonstrate increased attraction with a combination of a pheromone and a green leaf volatile in a Buprestid species.

Temperature plays an important role in effective management of the alfalfa leafcutting bee [Megachile rotundata (F.); Megachilidae], the major commercial pollinator of seed alfalfa [Medicago sativa (L.); Fabaceae] in North America. To improve our understanding of threshold and optimum rearing temperatures of M. rotundata, we examined the effect of temperature on postwintering development by using a greater number of temperature treatments than applied in previous studies (19 versus eight or fewer) and analytical tools formulated to model nonlinear relationships between temperature and insect development rates. We also tested the hypothesis that rearing temperature influences adult body lipid content at emergence, which could affect adult survival, establishment and performance as a pollinator, and reproductive success. We found that the Lactin-2 and Briere-2 models provided the best fits to data and gave reasonable estimates of lower (16–18°C) and upper (36–39°C) developmental thresholds and optimum (33–34°C) rearing temperatures for maximizing development rate. Bees successfully emerged over a broad range of temperatures (22– 35°C), but variation in development rate among individuals reared at the same temperature was lowest at 31–33°C. The optimum rearing temperature to maximize the proportion of body lipids in adults was 27–29°C. Our results are discussed in relation to previous findings and speak to the difficulties in designing practical rearing guidelines that simultaneously maximize development rate, survival, and adult condition, while synchronizing adult emergence with alfalfa bloom.

The adult body size of the Mediterranean fruit fly, Ceratitis capitata (Wiedemann) (Diptera: Tephritidae), varies in natural conditions. Body size is an important fitness indicator in the Mediterranean fruit fly; larger individuals are more competitive at mating and have a greater dispersion capacity and fertility. Both temperature during larval development and host fruit quality have been cited as possible causes for this variation. We studied the influence of host fruit and temperature during larval development on adult body size (wing area) in the laboratory, and determined body size variation in field populations of the Mediterannean fruit fly in eastern Spain. Field flies measured had two origins: 1) flies periodically collected throughout the year in field traps from 32 citrus groves, during the period 2003–2007; and 2) flies evolved from different fruit species collected between June and December in 2003 and 2004. In the lab, wing area of male and female adults varied significantly with temperature during larval development, being larger at the lowest temperature. Adult size also was significantly different depending on the host fruit in which larvae developed. The size of the flies captured at the field, either from traps or from fruits, varied seasonally showing a gradual pattern of change along the year. The largest individuals were obtained during winter and early spring and the smallest during late summer. In field conditions, the size of the adult Mediterannean fruit fly seems apparently more related with air temperature than with host fruit. The implications of this adult size pattern on the biology of C. capitata and on the application of the sterile insect technique are discussed.

Xylotrechus arvicola Olivier (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae) has become a new expanding pest in grape (Vitis spp.) crops. To better improve control tactics, the consequences of 11 constant (12, 15, 18, 21, 24, 27, 30, 32, 34, 35 and 36°C) and nine variable temperatures (with equal mean temperatures at each of the nine constant rates ranging from 15 to 35°C) on survival and embryonic development were studied. The eggs were able to complete development at constant temperatures between 15 and 35°C, with mortality rates at the extremes of the range of two and 81.5%, respectively. Using variable temperatures a mortality rate of 38.9% at a mean temperature of 15°C and 99% at 35°C was observed. The range of time for embryonic development was 29.5 d at 15°C to 6 d at 32°C at constant temperatures, and from 29.6 d at 15°C to 7.2 d at 32°C at variable temperatures. The goodness-of-fit of different development models was evaluated for the relationship between the development rate and temperature. The models that gave the best fit were the Logan type III for constant temperatures and the Brière for variable temperatures. Optimum temperatures were estimated to be from 31.7 to 32.9°C. The models that best described embryo development under natural field conditions were the Logan type III model for constant temperatures (98.7% adjustment) and the Lactin model for variable temperatures (99.2% adjustment). Nonlinear models predicted faster development at constant temperatures and slower development at variable ones when compared with real field development, whereas the linear model always predicted faster development than what actually took place.

Microtheca ochroloma Stål is a beetle native to South America and was introduced to the United States in 1945. Since then, M. ochroloma has become a serious pest in crucifer crops because of the lack of natural enemies. The objective of this study was to measure the predation rate and development time of the commercially available predator Podisus maculiventris (Say) feeding on M. ochroloma at four constant temperatures in the laboratory as a first step to evaluating the predator's capability as a biological control agent of the pest. Nymphal development of P. maculiventris increased from 23 d at 25°C to 99 d at 15°C. There was no development of first instar or egg hatch at 10°C. Number of fourth-instar M. ochroloma killed during nymphal development varied significantly from 65 at 15°C to 53 at 20°C because of length of the nymphal period. A mean total of 741 eggs of M. ochroloma were consumed during nymphal development at 25°C. Adult P. maculiventris preyed on nine and 12 times more fourth-instar M. ochroloma during 10 d at 20° and 25°C, respectively, than at 15°C. We conclude that P. maculiventris can develop successfully on a diet of eggs or fourth-instar M. ochroloma, but its predation and development rates will be significantly curtailed during the cool months from November to March when M. ochroloma is a key pest of organically grown crucifers in Florida.

American chestnut [Castanea dentata (Marshall) Borkhausen], a canopy dominant species across wide swaths of eastern North America, was reduced to an understory shrub after introduction of the blight fungus [Cryphonectria parasitica (Murrill) Barr] in the early 1900s. Restoration of American chestnut by using biotechnology is promising, but the imprecise nature of transgenesis may inadvertently alter tree phenotype, thus potentially impacting ecologically dependent organisms. We quantified effects of genetic engineering and fungal inoculation of trees on insect herbivores by using transgenic American chestnuts expressing an oxalate oxidase gene and wild-type American and Chinese (C. mollissima Blume) chestnuts. Of three generalist folivores bioassayed, only gypsy moth [Lymantria dispar (L.)] was affected by genetic modification, exhibiting faster growth on transgenic than on wild-type chestnuts, whereas growth of polyphemus moth [Antheraea polyphemus (Cramer) ] differed between wild-type species, and fall webworm [Hyphantria cunea (Drury) ] performed equally on all trees. Inoculation of chestnuts with blight fungus had no effect on the growth of two herbivores assayed (polyphemus moth and fall webworm). Enhanced fitness of gypsy moth on genetically modified trees may hinder restoration efforts if this invasive herbivore's growth is improved because of transgene expression.

A simulation model of the temporal and spatial dynamics and population genetics of western corn rootworm, Diabrotica virgifera virgifera LeConte, was created to evaluate the use of block refuges and seed blends in the management of resistance to transgenic insecticidal corn (Zea mays L.). This Bt corn expresses one transgenic corn event, DAS-59122-7, that produces a binary insecticidal protein toxin (Cry34Ab1/Cry35Ab1) and provides host-plant resistance. The model incorporates the latest information about larval and adult behavior. Results of this modeling effort indicate that the seed-blend scenarios in many cases produced equal or greater durability than block refuges that were relocated each year. Resistance evolved in the most likely scenarios in 10–16 yr. Our standard analysis presumed complete adoption of 59122 corn by all farmers in our hypothetical region, no crop rotation, and 100% compliance with Insect Resistant Management (IRM) regulations. As compliance levels declined, resistance evolved faster when block refuges were deployed. Seed treatments that killed the pest when applied to all seeds in a seed blend or just to seeds in Bt corn blocks delayed evolution of resistance. Greater control of the pest population by the seed treatment facilitated longer durability of the transgenic trait. Therefore, data support the concept that pyramiding a transgenic insecticidal trait with a highly efficacious insecticidal seed treatment can delay evolution of resistance.