The extent to which introduced weed biocontrol agents are subject to attack by generalist natural enemies within the area of introduction is believed to be an important determinant of program success. We monitored larval populations of a recently introduced weed biocontrol agent, Neomusotima conspurcatalis Warren, at field sites in Florida to investigate parasitism by native parasitoids and to assess the overall rate of parasitism. Of six native parasitoid species reared from wild larvae of N. conspurcatalis, five, Rhygoplitis choreuti (Viereck), Stantonia pallida (Ashmead), Elasmus apanteli Gahan, Hyphantrophaga sellersi (Sabrosky), and an unidentified Cotesia sp. were primary parasitoids of the biocontrol agent. The sixth species, Mesochorus apantelis Dasch, is likely a hyperparasitoid of R. choreuti. From 1,100 N. conspurcatalis larvae collected from three sites, adult parasitoids emerged from 6.8% of those larvae and 73.6% of the N. conspurcatalis developed to adulthood. R. choreuti was the most common parasitoid, accounting for 81% of adults reared. Photographs of parasitoid species are provided, aspects of their natural histories and host ranges are described, and accumulation of native parasitoids on introduced weed biocontrol agents is discussed.

Despite their status as economically important pests on apple, species boundaries in the four native Nearctic species of Pandemis Hübner have remained uncertain for a century. We use a total evidence approach to test their genomic integrity using DNA (cytochrome oxidase I and ITS2), morphological (greyness of various wing areas), and geographic evidence. No single source of characters is sufficient, but combined evidence successfully separates the four species. We also examine the generic boundaries of Pandemis, using all Nearctic species, most western Palaearctic species, and a species of Archepandemis. DNA data place Archepandemis within Pandemis indicating that its members have lost the secondary sexual characters found in other Pandemis species.

The new subgenus Bucaphallanus is proposed to place the species of Paranomala Casey that has the apex of the mentum widely bilobed and provided with a dense fringe of setae and with lateral carinae on the abdominal sternites, as P. castaniceps (Bates) and P. capita (Ohaus). Six new species from Mexico are described and included in the new subgenus. We discuss and illustrate the diagnostic structures of the eight species. A distribution map, key to the species, and comments on its affinities with other members of the genus Paranomala are provided.

Tiger moth courtship involves an intricate interplay of female calling and male responses, involving pheromones, ultrasound, or both. A comparative phylogenetic approach is needed to separate proximal (ecological) from ultimate (evolutionary) explanations for observed behaviors. This study focused on mimetic tiger moths (Ctenuchina and Euchromiina) to provide a phylogeny to understand the evolution of male courtship structures (androconia). Genetic data from one mitochondrial gene (1,173 basepairs [bp] of COI) and two nuclear genes (238 bp of 28S rRNA D1 loop; 650 bp of EF1-α) were sampled for 29 species and analyzed using maximum parsimony, maximum likelihood, and Bayesian methods to estimate phylogenetic relationships. The ancestral reconstruction of androconia was optimized using parsimony and Bayesian approaches. Excluding three species, Euchromiina and Ctenuchina were recovered as reciprocally monophyletic, contradicting earlier molecular phylogenies. The genus Cosmosoma was found to be polyphyletic, as was Eucereon. Reconstruction of androconial structures revealed that these structures were acquired once, with subsequent losses in particular species.

Dendroctonus frontalis Zimmermann (Coleoptera: Curculionidae: Scolytinae) is a major economic pest of pines in the United States, Mexico, and Central America. We report biochemical investigations relevant to the taxonomic status and semiochemistry of two distinct morphotypes of D. frontalis recently detected in the Central American region. Morphotype A beetles (pre-episternal area of prothorax of both sexes smooth, bulging callus on anterolateral margin of prothorax of females) and morphotype B beetles (pre-episternal area of prothorax of both sexes with fine ridges, reduced female callus) collected in infestations in Chiapas, Mexico differed significantly in their production of 10 behaviorally-active compounds occurring in the genus Dendroctonus, including the major pheromone components for D. frontalis. Notably, host-attacking morphotype B females produced hundreds of nanograms of both endo-brevicomin and frontalin, whereas morphotype A females produced similar amounts of frontalin but subnanogram quantities of endo-brevicomin. Reanalysis of a published D. frontalis trapping study in Chiapas indicated that both morphotypes responded in greatest numbers when frontalin and endo-brevicomin baits were both present. In addition, we quantified 18 different cuticular hydrocarbons (the methyl-branched alkane components) from both morphotypes collected in Belize and Chiapas as well as morphotype A beetles from the southeastern United States, and principal component analysis revealed nonoverlapping clusters associated with either morphotype. This evidence of two distinct, complex phenotypes coexisting in the same sites and host trees supports the hypothesis that the D. frontalis morphotypes represent separate species and consequently indicates that the taxonomy of D. frontalis should be re-evaluated in the Central American region.

Reproductive schedules are a critical aspect of life history intrinsically linked to a species' ecology. We explored dynamic trajectories of daily fecundity, egg size, and egg fertility in three size classes of Hippodamia convergens Guerin-Meneville produced by varying larval access to food, eggs of Ephestia kuehniella Zeller. Adult pairs were held with ad libitum food and eggs were collected daily, counted, and a subsample measured. Egg fertility declined steeply over 25 clutches in small females, gradually in large females, but remained relatively stable in medium females. In small females, egg size and daily fecundity declined in a linear manner. There was no clear indication of an egg size-number tradeoff. In medium females, both egg size and daily fecundity peaked around the 16th day of oviposition, after which both declined. Large females began oviposition earlier and achieved peak egg size about day 7, and peak fecundity around day 12. Large females thus expressed a larger proportion of their reproductive effort early in adult life, a strategy inferred to be adaptive in the context of aphidophagy; a larger proportion of progeny would develop early in the exponential growth phase of the prey population when food is most abundant. Increases in egg size during this period may improve the survival of later-developing progeny; prey become scarce as aphid outbreaks decline and competition intensifies, favoring offspring with a larger body size at eclosion. Larval diet restriction appeared to constrain these presumably adaptive changes in egg size and daily fecundity, largely through effects on maternal body size.

Despite strong evolutionary pressure for an ovipositing parasitoid to use only hosts with high suitability, there are examples of parasitoid attacks that fail. Here we document one such instance, in which a parasitoid does not discriminate against an inappropriate host life stage, resulting in negative consequences for both the parasitoid and host. The solitary koinobiont parasitoid Encarsia inaron (Walker) was originally imported to North America to control the ash whitefly, Siphoninus phillyreae (Haliday), but readily parasitizes and completes development in other whitefly hosts, including Bemisia tabaci (Gennadius) and Trialeurodes abutiloneus (Haldeman). For both B. tabaci and T. abutiloneus, when younger host instars were parasitized, parasitism was successful and adult wasps emerged. In fourth instar hosts, however, adult parasitoids rarely emerged; rather, adult whiteflies were produced. Dissections over time showed that the wasp larvae continued to develop within these adult whiteflies, but did not successfully complete development. Furthermore, the adult whiteflies suffered reduced fecundity compared with nonparasitized adults and ultimately died as a result of parasitism. Our results suggest that E. inaron may be incapable of arresting the development of hosts parasitized as fourth instars, instead engaging in a developmental race that results either in a win for the parasitoid, or a loss for both the parasitoid and the host.

Because of their importance and abundance as predators of pest insects in agroecosystems around the world, eight species of lacewings from four genera (Apertochrysa, Chrysopa, Chrysoperla, and Dichochrysa) were investigated to evaluate their performance when reared on eggs of Ephestia kuehniella Zeller, a factitious prey commonly used in mass rearing systems. In particular, a comparative assessment of trash-carrying versus naked species (ones not carrying trash on their backs) was performed. We measured the developmental times and survival rates of the eight green lacewings and compared these characteristics between trash-carrying and naked lacewing species. Survival during immature development was higher (77–87%) for the two naked species (Chrysopa pallens (Rambur) and Chrysoperla suzukii (Okamoto)) than for the trash-carrying species D. alcestes (33%). Immature and larval developmental times were significantly longer among the trash-carrying species than the naked species. The rapid development of naked green lacewings may be a strategy to decrease predation risk by aphid guarding ants and intra-guild predators.

Bronze birch borers (Agrilus anxius Gory) (Coleoptera: Buprestidae), a key pest of birches in North America, have the potential to be a major threat to Eurasian birch forests. Therefore, the consequences of single versus multiple mating on the longevity, fecundity and fertility of female A. anxius were examined. There were three treatments: females observed mating one time and 1 ) then housed alone, 2) kept with their mate, and 3) females paired and housed with a randomly chosen male. Another group of females were observed mating once, and then dissected, 47 of 48 of them had received spermatophores. Weight and longevity of females did not differ among mating treatments. Fecundity, but not fertility, was positively correlated with longevity in all treatments. A high percentage of females in all three mating treatments laid eggs, and there was not a significant difference among treatments. The fecundity of females that laid eggs also did not differ among treatments. These results suggest that a single successful mating may be sufficient to ensure maximal fecundity for females, and that potential for failure of any mating is low. However, there is no apparent cost to multiple mating. Thus, multiple mating may increase fecundity for female bronze birch borers. Our results suggest that laboratory rearing protocols need not ensure females mate multiple times. At the population level, our results suggest that a mate-finding Allee effect at low population densities is unlikely. We also compare the results to an earlier study with the emerald ash borer, Agrilus planipennis Fairmaire.

The yellowmargined leaf beetle, Microthecaochroloma (Stål) (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae ), is an adventive pest of cruciferous crops in the southeastern United States. Despite its pest status, there is limited information about the infiuence of temperature on development and survival of M. ochroloma. The objectives of this study were to assess the effect of temperature on the development and survival of immature stages, and determine the cold tolerance of immature and adult stages. Development was evaluated at 15,20, 25, and 30°C, and cold tolerance was measured at 5,0, and -5°C inside environmentally controlled chambers. Survival of M. ochroloma from egg to adult was ≈80% at 15,20, and 25°C, but only 24% at 30^°C. Mean developmental time was longest at 15°C (57 d) and shortest at 30^°C (17 d). Leaf area consumed by the fourth instar was 7.4-fold lower at 30^°C compared with consumption at 15, 20, or 25°C. The lower developmental threshold varied from 7.3 to 9.8°C and the total degree-days required to complete development from egg to adult was 333. At 5,0, and -5°C, the LT₉₀ values for the first instar were shorter compared with all other stadia, suggesting that the first instar is the most susceptible to cold temperatures. Eggs were most cold tolerant, followed by pupae and adults. Based on the LT₅₀ (13d) andLT₉₀ (38d) of eggs at 0^°C, the predicted northern distribution of M. ochroloma extends to Kansas, Illinois, Kentucky, and Virginia.

Population phenology studies in the native range of a potential biological control agent are indispensable to understand and manage the establishment of populations. At the same time, is important to know the responses of this agent to climatic variation if it were to be released in its target range. The life cycle and phenology of the armored scale Rhizaspidiotus donacis Leonardi, 1920 (Hemiptera: Diaspididae) under field conditions in part of its native range, the southeast of Spain, was studied from 2008 to 2010 as part of an evaluation of this scale for biological control of the giant reed, Arundo donax L. (Poaceae) in the south—western United States and Mexico, as this rhizomatous grass becomes invasive and extremely harmful in riparian areas. The results observed were that R. donacis has one generation per year. The crawlers are the infective and dispersive life stage and they occurred during spring, from March to June and the reproductive period identified by the adult males emergence, was found from May to July. Temperature was one of the climatic variables considered with most influence on the variation of stages abundance.

We provide the first report of larvae of Hoplopyga brasiliensis (Gory and Percheron) and H. singuhris (Gory and Percheron) (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae: Cetoniinae) in nests of Cornitermes cumulans (Kollar) (Isoptera: Termitidae: Syntermitinae) and Dwersitermes diversimiles (Silvestri) (Isoptera: Termitidae: Nasutitermitinae), respectively. We also provide new information on the life cycle of H. brasiliensis and the feeding behavior of adults of H. singularis. In total, 44 larvae of H. brasiliensis were found in a single nest of C. cumulans in apastureland in Coimbra, state of Minas Gerais, Brazil. Larvae of H. singularis were found under nests of D. diversimites at two urban parks in the state of Parana, Brazil. ≈15 larvae of H. singulis in different stages of development and some opened pupal cells were found in some nests of D. diversimiles. We increase the number of known termitophilous Hoplopyga species to three and discuss such relationships in light of published data and new information provided here.

Cornuplura nigroalbata (Davis, 1936) is a rarely collected cicada species represented by some 20 specimens deposited in institutional collections. We almost doubled the number of previously collected specimens and provide information on the acoustic behavior, ecology, distribution, and morphology of the species. The Arizona population studied appears to be the northernmost extension of the population and specimens are restricted to Santa Cruz and Cochise Counties in Arizona. The species is associated with the Sonoran desert vegetation. Males call primarily in the morning from desert oaks and mesquite with a preference for ocotillo at the beginning of the calling period. The song is an amplitude modulated call with dominant frequency of ≈6.5 kHz. We illustrate the genitalia and opercula of both males and females of the species for the first time.

Carpenter bees are the main pollinators of passion fruit, a crop classified as vulnerable to pollinator decline because it is strictly self-incompatible. We investigated cost-effective management strategies to increase the presence of female carpenter bees in passion fruit orchards by using trap-nests in bee shelters. Transfers of nests containing females of X. frontalis and X. grisescens between different sites were significantly more successful when the nests contained brood cells. Supplying a bee shelter with a combination of suitably sized empty bamboo stalks and active nests of carpenter bees can increase the population of actively nesting bees by >200% during the course of 23 mo, as a consequence of the emergence of brood from the introduced nests and the attraction of bees from the surroundings. In conclusion, our methods lead to improved success of introducing, increasing and maintaining carpenter bees populations for the pollination of passion fruit crops.

A novel technique of insect ecdysone analysis was established by capillary zone electrophoresis using 20-hydroxy ecdysone (purity ≥93%) as a standard sample. It showed that 20-hydroxy ecdysone and other trace impurities were completely separated within 5 min with an electrolyte containing 10 mmol/L borate, at pH 9.18, 20 kV applied voltage and 0.5 psi × 5 s injected volume. Under this optimal condition, effects of azadirachtin on ecdysone in the hemolymph of Ostrinia furnacalis (Guenee) were investigated. The results showed that the peak values of 20-hydroxy ecdysone were strongly suppressed by azadirachtin and the titers remained at a lower level than those in the control samples. When compared with high-performance liquid chromatography, the primary advantages of capillary zone electrophoresis include a much shorter analysis time and detection limit and the elimination of complex pretreatment of samples.

Structural analyses of eggs from Reduviidae may provide important data to establish relationships among the representatives of this family. This study described the eggshell morphology of Harpactor angulosus (Lepeletier and Serville 1825) (Reduviidae: Harpactorinae). Eggs of H. angulosus were analyzed using a stereoscopic microscope and a scanning electron microscope. Eggs of H. angulosus are oval-shaped and slightly flattened laterally, with an eggshell surface with several pores and a rounded posterior pole. The anterior pole has a poorly pronounced neck region, without formation of the collar and a small chorionic rim and with an incomplete anterior appendage without connection between the veil and opercular projections. Aeropyles have a tube-like aspect, arising in the middle region of the veil and extending until the sealing bar. Eggs of H. angulosus were similar to those of other Harpactorinae, but with differences in length, width, anterior appendage characteristics, and eggshell invaginations.

Although the boll weevil, Anthonomus grandis grandis Boheman (Coleoptera: Curculionidae), is a devastating pest in the United States and Mexico, its population structure and genetic diversity in Mexico on wild and cultivated cotton hosts (genus Gossypium) is poorly understood. Past studies using morphology, host use, and distribution records suggest that A. grandis grandis comprises three forms with host-associated characteristics: the southeastern form (from domesticated Gossypium hirsutum L., southeastern United States and northeastern Mexico), the thurberia form (from Gossypium thurberi Todaro, Arizona and northwestern Mexico), and the Mexican form (from multiple Gossypium species and other malvaceous plant genera in the remainder of Mexico and Central America). However, the phylogenetic relationships, host preferences, and distributions of these forms are not completely understood. An alternative hypothesis of an eastern and western form of the boll weevil is suggested by the suspected phylogeographic range expansion from an ancestral distribution in the tropics northward along both Mexican coasts, culminating in the maximally contrasting phenotypes observed in the northeastern and northwestern arms of the current distribution. In this study, we sequenced one mitochondrial and four nuclear genes to gain insight into the evolutionary relationships among the putative forms and their distributions on wild and domesticated cotton hosts. Using models of evolution, we compared the three-form to the two-form classification and to two alternative classifications that incorporate geography and host use traits. The genetic data at most loci provide stronger support for the two-form than the three-form hypothesis, with an eastern and western group separated by the Sierra Madre Occidental mountain range. They do not support separate taxonomic status for boll weevils developing on G. thurberi.

The tarnished plant bug, Lygus lineolaris (Palisot de Beauvois), is a highly polyphagous insect pest. It is the most widely distributed Lygus species in North America, and it is the most prevalent member of the genus Lygus in the eastern half of the continent. We sampled multiple populations of L. lineolaris from three disparate regions of North America, and used parts of the mitochondrial genes cytochrome oxidase 1 and cytochrome oxidase 2 as markers to assess intraspecific diversity of this species. Results indicated that there is an association between genetic population structure and geography. Neighbor-joining, maximum parsimony, Bayesian inference analysis, and maximum likelihood trees suggested that most L. lineolaris individuals belong to two closely related clades showing sympatric distribution. Mitochondrial DNA haplotypes common to widely dispersed populations were observed. Morphological identities of five L. lineolaris samples that formed an outlier clade indicated incongruence between morphological identity and genetic data. Individuals from the two major clades and one disparate clade did not exhibit recognizable morphological differences. No strong host plant associations were observed among clades, thus, genetic structuring in this species appears to mostly be geographically based. This study represents the first attempt to survey cytochrome oxidase 1 and cytochrome oxidase 2 variation within L. lineolaris and to use those genes to construct a molecular phylogeny for this species.