A review and illustrated key of the aphidiine parasitoids of Greenideinae aphids is presented including their distribution. Fissicaudus thailandicus Starý & Rakhshani sp. nov. from Thailand is described and figured. Parabioxys songbaiensis Shi & Chen is redescribed based on reared specimens from North Korea. Faunal peculiarities and relationships of the taxa are discussed together with a synopsis of their potential as biocontrol agents.

Comparisons of the external morphology of the holotype (female adult) of Callirhytis hakonensis Ashmead (Hymenoptera: Cynipidae) and the female adults reared and identified as the asexual generation of this species by H. Masuda corroborated the accuracy of his identification. Masuda previously demonstrated the heterogony in this gall wasp by rearing experiments, The holotype (the asexual generation) of this cynipid is redescribed, and female and male adults of the sexual generation are described on the basis of specimens reared by him, Because the adults of the asexual and sexual generations had the diagnostic features of the genus Andricus and not Callirhytis, this gall wasp is transferred to the genus Andricus. Judging from the descriptions of the wasps and galls, Andricus symbioticus Kovalev and Andricus attractus Kovalev are synonymized with A. hakonensis.

Divergence in genital traits between closely related species is occasionally greater in sympatry than in allopatry, possibly because directional selection facilitates differentiation so as to prevent unfit hybridization. Here, we report for the first time that the shape of a functional genital structure, cercus, differs markedly between sympatrically and allopatrically occurring individuals in two brachypterous grasshopper species, Parapodisma setouchiensis Inoue 1979 and Parapodisma subastris Huang 1983 (Orthoptera: Podisminae). Although in areas of allopatry the cerci were straight in both species, in areas of sympatry the cerci of P. setouchiensis had an almost orthogonal bend. Furthermore, the angles of curvature of the cerci of P. setouchiensis varied continuously along a transect through sympatric and allopatric areas. We also observed copulation behavior in pairs and found that the apical part of the cerci was inserted into the space between the posterior edges of the seventh abdominal sternite and the seventh abdominal tergite of the female. We suggest that the orthogonally bent cerci allows the male to obtain a firm grip on the female's abdomen and propose that the conspicuous variation in the cerci of P. setouchiensis contributes to the strength of reinforcement of a premating isolation system.

A new species of Taosa (Hemiptera: Dictyopharidae) is described, All the stages were collected on the aquatic weed Eichhornia crassipes (Martius) Solms-Laubach (Pontederiaceae) at several localities on the Paraguay River in Argentina, and in the upper Amazon River in Perú. Taosa (Cuernavaca) longula Remes Lenicov sp. nov. is distinguished by the following coloration pattern and morphological features: uniform green coloration with apair of lateral small dark spots on mesonotum, vertex subquadrate with a closed triangular facet well defined on apex, and a long anal segment; in male, the shape and relative length of parameres, the tubular aedeagus with a pair of ventral spinose processes recurved upward; in the female, the length, shape and denticulation of the first valvulae of the ovipositor, To facilitate the comparison of the new species with the morphologically allied, Taosa inexacta (Walker) and Taosa herbida (Walker 1851), a key is included. Further information on reproductive and feeding behavior, host plants, and geographical distribution of this species are given.

The Oriental Melolontha guttigera species group is revised with synopsis, a key to species, description of a new species, redescriptions of known species, remarks, illustrations, and distribution map, The guttigera species group is the only representative of the genus with its distribution extending southward from the eastern Himalayas to Indochina and crossing the equator to Java. Five species are known in this group, including a new species, M. setifera, from Myanmar. Lectotypes are designated for Melolontha guttigera Sharp and Melolontha weyersi Brenske. A key for the East and South-East Asian species group of the genus is provided, An annotated checklist of Melolontha species recorded in the region is updated in which several nomenclatural changes are proposed as follows: Hoplosternus carinata Brenske, Hoplosternus malaccensis Moser, Hoplosternus incana Motschulsky, and Hoplosternus shanghaiana Brenske are transferred to Melolontha; Melolontha fuliginosa Fairmaire and Melolontha laticauda Bates are transferred to Exolontha; Hoplosternus laevipennis Blanchard is transferred to Tocama; Hoplosternus heydeni Moser n. syn. = Melolontha chinensis (Guérin-Méneville); Melolontha nitidicollis Blanchard n. syn. = Melolontha indica Hope; Hoplosternus bifurcatus Brenske n. syn. = Melolontha furcienanda Ancey; Melolontha albidiventris Fairmaire n. syn. = Tocama rubiginosa (Fairmaire); Hoplesternus squamulatus Frey n. syn. = Tocama laevipennis (Blanchard); Melolontha hualiensis Kobayashi et Chou n. syn. = Melolontha minima Kobayashi.

A new species of Minanga Cameron (Hymenoptera: Braconidae: Sigalphinae), Minanga brevicarinata Tan & Chen, sp. nov., from China is described and illustrated, Previously known mainly from the Afrotropical region (eight species), with one species recently described from the Nearctic region, the genus is recorded for the first time from the boundary of Palearctic and Oriental regions. A new subgenus, Anopliminanga subgen. nov., is proposed to include two species (Minanga achterbergi Sharkey and Minanga brevicarinata sp. nov.). A key to species of the genus Minanga is updated. The distribution of Minanga and the new subgenus are briefly discussed.

The effects of temperature and photoperiod on diapause induction and termination in Leptocorisa chinensis Dallas (Hemiptera: Alydidae) were studied under constant conditions or by using transfer experimental protocols. Nymphs were reared either under a long-day (16:8 [L:D] h) or a short-day (12:12 [L:D] h) photoperiod at 25°C in the laboratory. Females oviposited at 25 and 20°C under the long-day photoperiod. However, females did not lay eggs within 100 d at 15°C under the long-day photoperiod or at 20 and 15°C under short-day conditions. At 25°C, when nymphs were reared under a long-day photoperiod and transferred to a short-day photoperiod on the day of adult emergence, females started oviposition in 10 d but stopped shortly thereafter. When nymphs were reared under a short-day photoperiod and transferred to a long-day photoperiod on the day of adult emergence, females started oviposition in ≈40 d. Females that had been transferred from the field on 1 February and 29 March to long-day laboratory conditions at 25°C started oviposition in ≈40 d. However, females that had overwintered in the field were transferred to a short-day photoperiod at 25°C on 1 February and 29 March did not start oviposition in the laboratory. Both the nymphal and adult stages of L. chinensis are considered to be sensitive to reproductive diapause induction and termination signals both before and after overwintering. Female L. chinensis require not only a long-day photoperiod and >40 d at temperature of 20°C or higher but also threshold temperatures for start of oviposition, even after the winter.

Tritrophic interactions may include directly harmful effects of host plants on herbivores, and directly or indirectly harmful effects of host plants on the natural enemies of herbivores. Tritrophic interactions involving parasitoids and predators have received considerable attention but less is known about how host plants affect entomopathogens. We compared growth and resistance to entomopathogenic nematodes for “woolly bear” caterpillars, Grammia incorrupta (=geneura) (Hy. Edwards) (Lepidoptera: Arctiidae) fed lettuce, Lactuca sativa L. (Asteraceae), versus threadleaf groundsel, Senecio longilobus Benth. (Asteraceae). Both plants are members of the Asteraceae, but only S. longilobus contains pyrrolizidine alkaloids. Caterpillars gained more mass when fed L. sativa compared with S. longilobus; yet, in one of four cases studied, resistance to nematodes was higher when caterpillars ate S. longilobus. Caterpillar resistance to nematodes did not differ between host plants in the other cases. In addition, nematode reproduction was higher in cadavers of G. incorrupta that had been fed L. sativa instead of S. longilobus, suggesting that S. longilobus had indirectly detrimental effects on entomopathogenic nematodes. Our results illustrate how trade-offs may arise in tritrophic interactions involving entomopathogens, as the cost of decreased growth imposed by S. longilobus was accompanied by the benefit of greater resistance to entomopathogenic nematodes.

Climatic changes during glacial periods have had a major influence on the recent evolutionary history of living organisms, even in the warm temperate forests, where the land was not covered with ice sheets. We investigated the phylogeographical patterns of the weevil, Rhynchaenus dorsoplanatus (Roelofs) (Coleoptera: Curculionidae), a host-specific leaf miner of Castanopsis (Fagaceae) that grows in the broadleaved evergreen forests of Japan. We examined 2343 bp of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) for 171 individuals collected from new infested leaves of Castanopsis at 55 localities in Japan. Spatial analysis of molecular variance showed a significant difference (φ;_CT = 0.14, P < 0.001) in genetic structure of the leaf-mining R. dorsoplanatus between the southwestern and the northeastern areas within the main islands of Japan. We also observed a large gap between the southwestern and northeastern clades (φ;_CT = 0.79, P < 0.001) with respect to the mtDNA sequences of the seed-boring Cuivulio hilgendorfi (Harold) (Coleoptera: Curculionidae), which shares the same host plant species. The demographic population expansion was detected and the beginning time of the expansion was dated to the end of the last glacial period in both weevil species. The congruent phylogeographical patterns observed in the leaf-mining and seed-boring weevil species reinforce the robustness of the deduced glacial and postglacial history of Castanopsis-associated organisms. These data suggest that the host-specific parasitic insects and their associated Castanopsis forests were likely restricted to separate southwestern and northeastern refugia within the main islands of Japan during repeated glacial periods in the Quaternary.

Aethina tumida Murray (Coleoptera: Nitidulidae) is considered a minor parasitic pest of African honey bee, Apis mellifera L. (Hymenoptera: Apidae), colonies, but little information is available on other coleopteran pests. We surveyed for A. tumida and other beetles in honey bee colonies at four major beekeeping locations: Watamu, Chawia-Taita, Matuu, and Nairobi in Kenya and compared their distribution within the colonies. The presence of A. tumida was confirmed in all the colonies surveyed, whereas Oplostomus haroldi Witte (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae) was found for the first time to be associated with honey bee colonies in varying numbers at all the sites, except that none were found in colonies in Nairobi. More than 90% of A. tumida and O. haroldi were found in Watamu and Chawia, located within the coastal province of Kenya. Although A. tumida was found mostly on the bottom board of the hives, consistent with previous reports, O. haroldi was found on the frames. Laboratory bioassays using a two-choice olfactometer showed that both beetle species were significantly attracted to worker honey bee volatiles and commercial pollen dough inoculated with the yeast Kodamaea ohmeri associated with A. tumida. Based on these findings, we report for the first time O. haroldi as a pest of African honey bee colonies in Kenya, We propose that differences in their densities recorded in the colonies may be due to dissimilarities in the colony environments in the areas surveyed and that odor-baited traps that have been successfully been used to manage populations of A. tumida also will be suitable for use against O. haroldi.

Pollen and nectar are the most important floral rewards in plant—pollinator interactions. These rewards are voraciously consumed by hummingbird flower mites (Acari: Mesostigmata: Ascidae), and nectar and pollen feeding by mites have a strong impact on plant—hummingbird interactions. Tropicoseius chiriquensis (Acari: Mesostigmata: Ascidae) feed on nectar and pollen of Lobelia laxiflora H.B.K. (Lobeliaceae) flowers, and within the floral corolla they mate and lay eggs. Yet the benefits of nectar and pollen feeding in terms of survival and fecundity of flower mites are quite unexplored. Here, we evaluate the fecundity and numerical response of T. chiriquensis to the availability of pollen in long-lived protandrous flowers of L. laxiflora. Under field conditions, unmanipulated flowers with pollen had more mites (adults, nymphs, larvae, and eggs) than emasculated flowers without pollen, Numbers of mites fluctuated throughout the flower life span. More adult mites were found for the first 2 d of the flower (staminate phase) and decreased for the last three days of life of the flower (pistillate phase). In contrast, we found higher number of larvae in the pistillate phase. In a laboratory experiment, the fecundity of flower mites was 4 times as high when pollen was available as that when flower mites were not provided with pollen. They completed their life cycle in approximately a week, the life span of L. laxiflora flowers. Our results suggest that pollen availability in L. laxiflora long-lived flowers could influence the population dynamics of T. chiriquensis by having a positive impact on numbers and fecundity of the mites.

The citrus mealybug, Phnococcus citri (Risso) (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae), is a vector of Grapevine leafroll-associated virus 3 (GLRaV-3), which causes severe damage to grapevines (Vitis spp.) worldwide. We studied the feeding behavior of P. citri on grapevine leaves and whole plants infected with GLRaV-3 and on artificial feeding membranes using DC-electrical penetration graphs (EPGs). P. citri ingested from phloem sieve elements, but it also spent long intervals in the xylem. Waveforms, not described before for mealybugs, were characterized, some of them resembling those of aphids: 1) one new pattern occurring within the phloem phase, named E23, correlated with honeydew excretion and positive ninhydrine reaction and therefore was associated with sap ingestion from the phloem sieve elements; and 2) an extracellular waveform, named G, also possibly associated with ingestion in artificial membranes, which probably represented xylem ingestion. The potential drops (pd) of P. citri showed two distinct phases (pd1 and pd2). The occurrence of pds was, on average, less frequent than in aphids (0.14/min), but they lasted much longer (32.5 s). The temporal analysis of 20 EPG recordings on detached leaves lasting 20 h showed great variability among individuals. Only 11/20 mealybugs reached the phloem phase, and ingestion from the phloem sieve elements (E23) was the predominant phloem-related activity. However, the G pattern was even more frequent, and most insects (16/20) showed xylem ingestion activities with an average duration of 8.7 h. This work represents the first step to identify specific stylet activities associated with the acquisition and inoculation of GLRaV-3 by P. citri.

Although controlled atmosphere temperature treatments are effective in controlling codling moth, Cydia pomonella (L.), in fruit, the mechanism by which this combination treatment kills the larvae is unknown. Differential scanning calorimetry was used to determine the effects of elevated temperatures, low O₂, and high CO₂ on the metabolic heat rate of fifth-instar codling moths. Total ATP levels also were determined. Metabolic heat rates in air increased from 0 to 30°C and decreased above 30°C. Heat rates measured isothermally at 23°C under decreased O₂ or increased CO₂ were lower than those in air with the lowest in 1 kPa O₂ and 1 kPa O₂ 15 kPa CO₂, Continuous temperature scans from 23 to 44.5°C under low O₂ and high CO₂ atmospheres produced lower metabolic heat rates than scans under air. Low O₂ atmospheres produced the lowest ATP levels, and high concentrations of CO₂ produced the highest ATP levels. These results indicate that heat treatments under controlled atmospheres have a dramatic effect on codling moth metabolism, low O₂ prevents ATP synthesis, and high CO₂ prevents use of ATP.

Odontomachus (Latreille) and Anochetus (Mayr) (Hymenoptera: Formicidae: Ponerinae) are closely related pantropical genera of ponerine ants that share morphological and behavioral characteristics. A comparative study was carried out using conventional Giemsa staining, fluorochrome staining, and fluorescent in situ hybridization. Karyotypes revealed a higher stability in chromosome number among Odontomachus species than among Anochetus species. We observed a higher frequency of metacentric chromosomes in the karyotypes of Anochetus compared with the more common telocentrics of Odontomachus species. Differences in the localization of rDNA genes on chromosomes between the two genera also were verified, rDNA genes were found on telocentric and submetacentric chromosomes in Anochetus and on telocentric chromosomes in Odontomachus. Our cytogenetic results lend support to Brown's hypothesis that Odontomachus has evolved from a lineage of Anochetus. The karyotype divergence of both genera can be explained by a model of evolution in which there is a tendency to the increase of chromosome number by centric fission. Supporting evidence for this hypothesis is discussed.

The natural history and mating behavior of Pseudodyscrasis scutellaris (Wiedemann) (Diptera: Ulidiidae), a fly associated with Agave atrovirens Karw. ex Salm-Dyck (Agavaceae) in the Mexican Altiplano is described based on a 1-yr monthly survey of adult, pupal, and larval stages and on 108 h of field observations. P. scutellaris overwintered in the egg stage, resumed larval development in the spring, pupated in the soil under agaves, and adults emerged during the summer, Courtship behavior and male agonistic encounters consisted of sequences of short distance visual displays, Females oviposited in feeding scars produced by lepidopteran larvae during previous seasons, Larvae developed in aggregations of >100 individuals the following spring. Adults fed on various carbohydrate and protein sources, frequently interacted with other species of Diptera and ants, and were preyed upon by spiders and wasps. We discuss our findings in light of the evolution of behavior within the superfamily Tephritoidea and highlight the importance of further studies on the community of arthropods found on agaves.

Riptortus pedestris (F.) (Heteroptera: Alydidae) females oviposit not only on host plants but also on nonhosts, which may impose high costs on nymphs in terms of locomotion energy and time searching for host plants. Therefore, we hypothesized that second-instar nymphs have developed adaptive traits that help them access host plants, because the first feeding stage occurs during the second instar in this bug. We compared responses to the aggregation pheromone, relative leg lengths, and locomotion performance using a servosphere locomotion compensator as tests of physiological, morphometric, and behavioral traits, respectively, among the instars. We also investigated the effects of delayed feeding in the second instar on subsequent survival and development. Our results indicated that second-instar nymphs might have responded more sensitively to synthetic aggregation pheromone than other instars. Morphological measurements showed that second-instar nymphs had the longest relative leg length compared with other instars. The experiment using the servosphere revealed that second-instar nymphs had higher locomotion performance than did older nymphs, which may allow second-instar nymphs to walk a distance comparable to older nymphs, although their body size is much smaller. However, we did find that more than a 48-h delay in feeding after the first-instar molt decreased subsequent survival rates and that a later first-feeding led to a longer developmental period during the second instar. We concluded that R. pedestris nymphs have evolved various adaptive traits to enhance the probability of accessing host plants in response to the costly oviposition habit of adult females that lay eggs on nonhosts.

Subterranean termites excavate tunnel patterns that radiate outward from a point of origin along vectors generated by path integration. Upon encountering open space, the tunnel heads away from the new site. In this study we forced termite excavators to travel from an introduction chamber through a tube with a 90° bend before entering a sand-filled arena, an opened chamber with perpendicular openings that forced a 90° turn before access to the arena, or an open chamber with an odor trail left by previous termites traveling through the opened chamber connecting the perpendicular openings. When forced to move through an opened chamber with no odor trail, the termites tunnelled away from the second chamber, not the introduction chamber. In contrast, when a path is either constrained inside a tube or demarcated by odor trail the path was more likely to head away from the first chamber, suggesting that they are not responding to a cue derived from an intrinsic value of open space. The discontinuation of their perceived path as they traveled through the open space seems to have caused an updating of the path integrator. The location of the deposition of excavated sand from the arena within the tube and chamber system varied, with sand found only in the second chamber when the path was broken. The cues that cause an updating of the path integrator also may stimulate sand deposition.