During the last two decades, there was considerable debate on the actual number of insect species on Earth, and current estimates range from 5 to 30 million species. For gall-inducing insects, a cosmopolitan group of specialist herbivores, the last, 40-yr-old estimate of global richness indicated 13,000 species, mostly from temperate regions. To update these estimates, we used 10 studies that provided the average number of gall-inducing insect species per plant species (galled and nongalled) in different vegetation types around the world, and a recent calculation of 422,000 seed plant species on Earth. Considering that most of the gall-inducing insects are monophagous, these data were extrapolated to the global flora, assuming a positive relationship between gall-inducing insect richness and plant richness. Estimates of the global richness of gall-inducing insects ranged from 21,000 to 211,000 species, with an average of 132,930 species. The global distribution pattern described for gall-inducing insects pointed to a higher richness in warm temperate regions with sclerophyllous vegetation. However, it is likely that the tropical rain forests would harbor a higher absolute number of gall-inducing insects, due to their outstanding plant richness. Most of this fauna will be found on the poorly explored canopies of rain forests, especially in the Neotropical region. An increased sampling effort in tropical regions should fill the taxonomy gap represented by gall-inducing insects and possibly change the biogeographic patterns described so far.

The phylogeny and genital evolution of carabid beetles in the tribe Pterostichini, mainly the genus Pterostichus (Coleoptera: Carabidae), were studied using two nuclear gene sequences: wingless and 28SrDNA. Phylogenetic results suggest that the genera Molops, Poecilus, Stomis, Myas, Lesticus, and Trigonotoma and the subgenus Bothriopterus of the genus Pterostichus form basal lineages, with genus Molops sister to the rest of the tribe. The genus Pterostichus, with the exception of the subgenus Bothriopterus, was monophyletic and occupied more derived lineages. Examinations of the membranous parts of the genitalia (male endophallus and female spermatheca) revealed that endophalli and spermathecae are classified into four and five types, respectively. Reconstructions of genital character evolution on the trees obtained suggest that the ancestor of Pterostichini had a straight endophallus and a short cylindrical spermatheca and that the elaborated genitalia seen in some species evolved in more derived lineages.

The four species comprising the leucochrysine genus Berchmansus are reexamined. Two species [Berchmansus elegans (Guérin-Méneville, 1844), and Berchmansus brooksi Tauber, 2006] are transferred to the small genus Vieira. Redescriptions, with illustrations of the male and female genitalia, are provided for the two remaining species: Berchmansus adumbratus Navás, 1913b (the type species for the genus) and Berchmansus cinctipes (Banks, 1915). These two species express several unique features that support retaining Berchmansus as a separate genus within Leucochrysini. The type species of Vieira, Vieira leschenaulti (Navás, 1913a) is also redescribed, and the genus, which now contains four species, is reassigned to the tribe Belonopterygini. Finally, two additional, new species that would key to the genus Berchmansus are described. These species are very closely related, and they appear to belong within Leucochrysini; however, their generic affiliation is not readily apparent. For convenience, they are placed in the large, ill-defined genus Leucochrysa. A new lectotype and new paralectotypes are named for B. cinctipes.

Three new species of Ptilomera (P. jariyae, P. kra, and P. tennaserim) were collected from mountain streams in western and southern Thailand, and they are described and illustrated herein. These new species bring the number of described species of this genus in Thailand to seven. In addition, the winged form of P. fang Polhemus is described. Diagnoses for males and females are provided for all seven species occurring in Thailand, along with distributional records and maps.

A new genus of philopotine Acroceridae in Baltic amber is described from both sexes. Archaeterphis hennigi gen. et sp. nov. is easily diagnosed from all other acrocerid genera by the deeply emarginate hind margin of the eye, short mouthparts, reduced wing venation, modified hind femora, and the large postpronotal lobes being proximate but not touching. The new genus is closely related to the extant genus Africaterphis Schlinger from southern Africa, which accords with a common biogeographic pattern in insects.

ZUSAMMENFASSUNG Eine neue Gattung philopotiner Acroceriden aus dem Baltischen Bernstein wird von beiden Geschlechtern beschrieben. Archaeterphis hennigi gen. et sp. nov., ist eindeutig von allen anderen Acroceriden anhand des tief eingeschnittenen Augenhinterrands, des kurzen Rüssels, des reduzierten Flügelgeäders, der modifizierten Hinterschenkel und der grossen postpronotal Loben, welche sich naehern aber nicht berühren, zu unterscheiden. Die neue Gattung ist eng mit der rezenten Gattung Africaterphis Schlinger aus dem südlichen Afrika verwandt. Die nahe Verwandschaft zwischen fossilen Taxa des Baltischen Bernsteins und rezenten Taxa aus der Ethiopis, stellt ein häufig beobachtetes biogeographisches Muster dar.

A new species of eriophyid mite, Leipothrix dipsacivagus n. sp. (Acari: Prostigmata: Eriophyidae), collected from Dipsacus laciniatus L. (Dipsacaceae) and Dipsacus fullonum L. in Serbia, Bulgaria, and France, is described and illustrated. Differential diagnosis is provided in comparison with Leipothrix knautiae (Liro) n. comb., and Leipothrix succisae (Roivainen) n. comb., two species that also are proposed here for reassignment from the genus Epitrimerus Nalepa to the genus Leipothrix Keifer, within the family Eriophyidae. L. dipsacivagus n. sp. is being investigated as a candidate for biological control of invasive Dipsacus spp. in the United States.

The six species of Cybocephalidae occurring in the West Indies and Trinidad are revised. Included are a new combination of Pycnocephalus deyrollei (Reitter) and descriptions of four new species: Cybocephalus antilleus, Cybocephalus caribaeus, Cybocephalus iviei, and Cybocephalus geoffreysmithi. A key to species, illustrations of morphological features including detailed drawings of male genitalia, and distribution data are provided.

Rianilaneuria diminuta Pescador & Peters, a new genus and species from the mideastern slopes of Madagascar, is described from male and female adults and eggs. The adults are defined by the presence of vein IR and the absence of vein IMP in the forewing; male genitalia with two-segmented forceps, short penes and a small truncate styliger; absence of mesoscutellar filaments; and elongate coxae. The egg chorion is adorned with widely spaced and circularly clustered sponge-like microsetae.

Since the description of Ceutorhynchus subpubescens LeConte (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) >125 yr ago, very little information has been published on its biology, taxonomy, or distribution. We conducted studies in southern Alberta, Canada, to investigate aspects of its life history and host plant feeding preferences. Preimaginal life stages of C. subpubescens were described for the first time, and data were compiled on its North American distribution. Ceutorhynchus subpubescens was univoltine. Adults emerged from overwintering sites in shelterbelts in late April to early May, and first occurred on host plants in May. Eggs were laid into apical stem regions of flixweed, Descurainia sophia (L.) Webb (Brassicaceae), and hatched to larvae that mined the stems, feeding primarily on pith tissue. Three instars developed within D. sophia. When mature, the final instar bored an exit hole in the primary stem, just below the juncture of a lateral shoot. Developmental time from eggs to final instars required only 35–45 d, an adaptation that accommodated the rapid development of D. sophia hosts. Setal numbers on the mouthparts and head capsule distinguished final instars of C. subpubescens from its sympatric congeners, Ceutorhynchus neglectus Blatchley and Ceutorhynchus obstrictus (Marsham). New distribution records for the species include Alberta, Arizona, Montana, Nebraska, New Mexico, Oregon, Saskatchewan, South Dakota, and Washington. C. subpubescens has adapted to exploit a resource-rich habitat, where larvae are free from interference from predators and parasitoids; however, its relatively rare occurrence in western North America is surprising given the abundance of its host plants.

The growth rate (r) of Varroa destructor Anderson & Trueman (Acari: Varroidae) populations in Russian and Italian honey bee, Apis mellifera L., colonies was monitored from 2001 to 2003 in Baton Rouge, LA. Over this period, our results consistently showed lower mite growth in the Russian than in the Italian colonies. In 2001, instantaneous growth rates per week (r₇) were r₇ = 0.191 ± 0.011 for mites in Italian colonies and r₇ = 0.137 ± 0.012 in Russian honey bees for 24.3 wk. These growth rates were equivalent to 159.1- and 61.6-fold increase, respectively. Divergence in r₇ values also was observed in 2002 when Russian colonies supported a lower growth rate of r₇ = 0.061 ± 0.016 (9.3-fold increase) than the Italian colonies (r₇ = 0.122 ± 0.01 or a 31.7-fold increase) did after 26 wk. The lowest rate of r₇ = 0.021 ± 0.011 (a 1.4-fold increase) was recorded for Russian honey bees in 2003, whereas the Italian bees in that year supported r₇ = 0.145 ± 0.009 (an 18.9-fold increase) after 19 wk. This low growth rate of mite populations in Russian colonies may be attributed to several factors. Notably, as this study showed, Russian bees were less attractive to varroa mites. Furthermore, the Russian stock supported low proportions of brood infested and fewer multiply infested cells in both worker and drone brood, reduced mite reproduction, and extended phoretic period.

Parasitoids and predatory flies that can attack soybean aphid, Aphis glycines Matsumura (Hemiptera: Aphididae), in soybean, Glycine max (L.) Merr., fields were identified 3 to 4 yr after the aphid was first sighted in the north central United States. We detected 15 species by exposing soybean aphid to ovipositing parasitoids and predatory flies at two locations in southern Michigan. The species detected were (in order of the number of specimens recovered from high to low) Aphidoletes aphidimyza Rondani (Diptera: Cecidomyiidae), Lysiphlebus testaceipes Cresson (Hymenoptera: Braconidae), Allograpta obliqua Say (Diptera: Syrphidae), Aphidius colemani Viereck (Hymenoptera: Braconidae), Eupeodes americanus Wiedemann (Diptera: Syrphidae), Leucopis glyphinivora Tanasijtshuk (Diptera: Chamaemyiidae), Aphelinus asychis Walker (Hymenoptera: Aphelinidae), Sphaerophoria contigua Macquart (Diptera: Syrphidae), Binodoxys kelloggensis Pike, Starý & Brewer (Hymenoptera: Braconidae), Eupeodes volucris Osten Sacken (Diptera: Syrphidae), Paragus hemorrhous Meigen (Diptera: Syrphidae), Toxomerus marginatus Say (Diptera: Syrphidae), Aphelinus albipodus Hayat & Fatima (Hymenoptera: Aphelinidae), Syrphus rectus Osten Sacken (Diptera: Syrphidae), and Praon sp. (Hymenoptera: Braconidae). These species were capable of finding, attacking, and completing development on soybean aphid in soybean fields. Based on a literature review, host aphid ranges of the species detected varied widely, with a tendency toward broader host ranges. These data add to the existing information on the predatory complex currently known to attack soybean aphid in the north central United States. Implications for biological control of soybean aphid are discussed.

Current taxonomic and biogeographical information on Reticulitermes in the United States suggests the only species found in Arizona is Reticulitermes tibialis Banks. Reticulitermes occurs naturally throughout Arizona with the exception of much of the Sonoran and Colorado deserts. Collections of Reticulitermes from disparate locations in Arizona and neighboring states were made to characterize their cuticular hydrocarbons for taxonomic purposes. We identified five phenotypes based on cuticular hydrocarbon mixtures of worker termites. The predominant hydrocarbons in AZ-A have 25 and 27 carbons in the parent chain, including 5,17-dimeC27. The late-eluting compounds are composed primarily of dienes, trienes, a homologous series of internally branched mono- and dimethylalkanes, and 5,17-dimethylalkanes. AZ-B differs from AZ-A by lacking the late-eluting dienes and trienes and by producing smaller amounts of hydrocarbons with 27 carbons in the parent chain. The cuticular hydrocarbons in AZ-C are composed primarily of olefins; C29:1 is the most abundant, and, with C27:1, C31:2, and C33:2, predominates the hydrocarbon mixture. This phenotype also has a homologous series of 5,17-dimethylalkanes from C27 to C43. AZ-D is distinguished by the absence of any 5-methylalkanes, 5,17-dimethylalkanes, or late-eluting dienes or trienes. The hydrocarbon mixture of AZ-D most closely resembles that of Reticulitermes hesperus Banks from northern California. NM-A can be distinguished from the other phenotypes by the significant amounts of the hydrocarbons coeluting in two peaks: C27 C27:3 and 7-, 9-, 11-, 13-meC27 C27:2. AZ-A was not common; the few samples we collected were all at the higher elevations, from 2,000 to 2,250 m, in northern Arizona. AZ-B was the most common and was found throughout the state from Fairbank (≈1,300m) to Jacob Lake (≈2,600 m). This phenotype also was found in eastern Nevada and southern Utah. AZ-C was sympatric with AZ-B over most of the distribution of the latter regions but was elevationally allopatric in southern Arizona. AZ-C occurred at high elevations (>1,500 m) on the desert islands of southeastern Arizona, such as the Santa Catalina, Santa Rita, Chiricahua, and Pinaleno mountains, whereas AZ-B occurred at lower elevations (<1,250 m), usually associated with a riparian area. AZ-D was collected only once in northern Arizona near Jacob Lake, AZ (≈1,800 m) but also on Mt. Charleston in southern Nevada. NM-A was collected near Jemez Springs and Chaco Canyon, NM, as well as in the vicinity of Moab, UT. Additional data from morphology, behavior and/or DNA may confirm that these phenotypes represent distinct species as it has with California Reticulitermes.

We examined the effect of juvenile density on offspring performance of Neopallodes inermis Reitter (Coleoptera: Nitidulidae) in relation to the use patterns of mushrooms of Collybia spp. In total, 407 individuals from eight insect families were reared from 80 mushrooms from 1999 to 2001. N. inermis and Hirtodrosophila alboralis Momma et Takada (Diptera: Drosophilidae) were dominant. The emergence of N. inermis peaked at 20 d after mushroom collection, whereas that of H. alboralis peaked at 12 d. Adult females of N. inermis lay eggs soon after the mushrooms occur. The mean fresh mass of the mushrooms soon after their appearance from which N. inermis emerged was larger than that of mushrooms with no emergents. An increase in the density of N. inermis was associated with a shorter elytral length of N. inermis both in 1999 and 2000. However, a greater density of other insects was associated with a shorter elytral length only in 2000. In 2000, when H. alboralis was most abundant in the insect community, an increase in their density was not significantly associated with a shorter elytral length of N. inermis. This suggests that the effect of intraspecific competition could work consistently. Females of N. inermis possibly reduce the effects of competition by ovipositing on large immature mushrooms because a large resource patch reduces competition among insects by reducing their density, although it was not clearly indicated because of unpredictable factors acting on mushrooms.

Liposcelis tricolor Badonnel (Psocoptera: Liposcelididae) is worldwide and commonly found in various processed and unprocessed dry foods in households, granaries, and warehouses. The development, survival, and reproduction of L. tricolor were evaluated at eight constant temperatures (20, 22.5, 25, 27.5, 30, 32.5, 35, and 37.5°C). The population reared at 37.5°C failed to develop or reproduce. Between 20 and 35°C, developmental period from egg to adult varied from 56.37 d at 20°C to 30.74 d at 32.5°C. Based on a nonlinear model, the lower temperature developmental thresholds from egg, first through fourth stadia, and combined immature stages were estimated at 9.57, 9.02, 10.04, 13.69, 14.38, and 11.30°C; the upper temperature thresholds were 39.28, 37.55, 37.85, 38.26, 37.37, and 38.98°C, respectively. The survival rate from egg to adult was 67.26% at 27.5°C, 43.62 and 24.22% at 20 and 35°C, respectively. After emergence, the adult had a preoviposition period that ranged from 65.74 d at 20°C to 3.52 d at 30°C. L. tricolor produced the most eggs (53.91) at 27.5°C and the fewest (17.58) at 35°C. The population reared at 30°C had the highest intrinsic rate of increase (0.0367), net reproductive rate (13.55), the shortest populations doubling time (18.89 d), and shorter mean generation time (71.05 d) compared with the populations reared at six other constant temperatures. The populations reared at 30°C had type I survivorship pattern, whereas populations reared at other temperatures had type III survivorship curve as determined by a Weibull frequency distribution. The optimal range of temperature for L. tricolor population growth was 25–30°C.

Dryocosmus kuriphilus Yasumatsu (Hymenoptera: Cynipidae) is a potentially devastating exotic invasive gall wasp that is rapidly spreading throughout the eastern United States, and infests all species of chestnut, Castanea spp. We investigated the community associates of D. kuriphilus in three geographic locations: Meadowview, VA, Bowling Green, KY, and Broadview Heights, OH. Dissection of galls and observation of chamber contents revealed that gall wasp larval mortality is approaching 47%, and parasitism accounts for nearly 70% of the mortality. Six parasitoid wasp species emerged from chestnut galls, including one introduced species and five of unknown origin. The life histories of each parasitoid and their potential roles within the D. kuriphilus community complex are discussed. Investigation of parasitoid interactions revealed a negative correlation between certain parasitoids, suggesting competition for resources, hyperparasitism, or both. The small chestnut weevil, Curculio sayi (Gyllenhal) (Coleoptera: Curculionidae), caused external damage to galls. Galls also were readily attacked by an unknown fungal pathogen resulting in gall wasp larval mortality. This study is the first to investigate the community associates of D. kuriphilus in North America. Our results have beneficial implications for commercial chestnut production, blight resistance breeding programs, and restoration of American chestnut.

The botanical insecticide azadirachtin affects a variety of biological processes. Our early work indicated that protein level and type are significantly influenced by azadirachtin in pupae of Ostrinia furnacalis (Guenée) (Lepidoptera: Crambidae) because a correlation exists between protein content and azadirachtin concentration. By use of proteomic techniques, we analyzed changes in hemolymph protein expression of 48-h-old pupae in O. furnacalis induced by azadirachtin treatment. After feeding by third instars on an artificial diet containing 10 ppm azadirachtin until pupation, 48-h-old pupae were collected, and hemolymph protein samples were prepared. They were separated by two-dimensional polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis, and six proteins were significantly affected by azadirachtin treatment compared with an untreated control. Two of these proteins were identified by database searching with peptide mass fingerprinting by using matrix-assisted laser desorption/time-of-flight mass spectrometry after in-gel trypsin digestion. They belong to the insect apolipophorin-III and phosphoribosyltransferase family, respectively. These two proteins may function on lipid metabolism in insect hemolymph. Furthermore, fat body is the center of synthesis and secretion of hemolymph proteins. We suggest that the azadirachtin exerts its insecticidal effects on the fat body of O. furnacalis by interfering with protein expression related to hemolymph lipid metabolism.

The horse fly Tabanus nigrovittatus Macquart (Diptera: Tabanidae), a hematophagous insect, is a nuisance pest along the Atlantic Coast. A description of the engorgement pattern throughout the season is lacking in the literature for this species. The percentage of flies engorging a bloodmeal in the laboratory throughout the season was recorded, and here we demonstrate that the percentage of flies that are blood feeding fluctuates, leading to a decrease in flies engorging as the season ends. Additionally, three recent nonhematophagous insect studies demonstrated that sulfakinins, a vertebrate homologue of cholecystokinin, function in feeding inhibition as a satiety factor. We found that groups of flies injected with one nanomole of perisulfakinin were inhibited from blood feeding by 45–60%. The satiation of feeding reported here is in agreement with the previous research by using nonhematophagous species. When groups of flies were injected with 10 nmol of perisulfakinin, the percentage of flies engorging was increased relative to the sham-injected flies, although not significantly. The stimulation of engorgement by sulfakinin has not previously been demonstrated, and its mode of action remains unclear.

Queens of the red imported fire ant, Solenopsis invicta Buren (Hymenoptera: Formicidae), release a primer pheromone that inhibits dealation (wing removal) of nestmate female alates by presumably suppressing endogenous concentrations of juvenile hormone (JH). Alates cast their wings once separated from the queen; however, the point of initiating dealation varies upon conditions. Alates are stimulated to shed their wings after several days of the death or removal of the queen, whereas newly mated alates dealate within 1 h after the mating flight. We found no single premating behavior or combination of behaviors associated with the nuptial flight that induces dealation rates comparable with that of newly mated queens. Copulation by itself or in conjunction with other behavioral signals and environmental prompts seems to be critical in causing rapid dealation in newly inseminated alates. In addition, colonies containing alates treated with precosene would not initiate mating flights nor could they be induced to fly. We suggest that precosene treatment affects the corpora allata (CA), but CA products other than juvenile hormone (JH) or in combination with JH are responsible for rapid dealation after mating. Dealation in the two contexts, within the colony and after mating flights, seems to occur via separate mechanisms.

The effects of 5-Aza-2′-deoxycytidine (5-Aza-dC), an inhibitor of DNA methyltransferase, were assessed on egg-to-adult developmental time, longevity, size, number of offspring produced, and sex ratio of the larval endoparasitoid Apanteles galleriae Wilkinson (Hymenoptera: Braconidae) and on egg-to-adult developmental time of the host Achroia grisella F. (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae). 5-Aza-dC-treated parasitoids required 1–18 d longer than controls to complete development. In contrast, egg-to-adult developmental time of treated A. grisella was not longer than untreated hosts. Adult longevity and size of the parasitoid species decreased because of 5-Aza-dC application. Likewise, the total number of offspring produced by wasps was reduced >50% in all treatment groups. The sex ratio of adults was in favor of males in 5-Aza-dC-treated groups.

A novel protein in the hemolymph of newly collected mated red imported fire ant, Solenopsis invicta Buren (Hymenoptera: Formicidae), queens was identified using SDS gel electrophoresis and silver staining. The protein was observed 24 h postmating and was not present in the hemolymph of either virgin queens or in queens 2–14 d postmating. Using a reverse genetics approach, we isolated a 252-bp DNA fragment corresponding to this protein that has homology with the cysteine protease inhibitor (CPI) in plants. We suggest that this putative fire ant queen CPI is involved in flight muscle histolysis. The expression of the putative CPI was monitored at the transcriptional level to establish its role in flight muscle histolysis. A significant increase in the expression of putative CPI transcript was observed in mated queens compared with alate virgin queens. Enhancement in the expression of the putative CPI started from day 0 postmating and continued to increase for another 3 d. On day 7, the expression almost vanished. We discuss the possibility that the CPI protein inhibits proteasomal degradation in the flight muscle cells, rendering them subject to apoptosis.

We identified the bacterial communities within the alimentary tracts of two granivorous ground beetles as a first step in the exploration of bacteria–ground beetle symbioses. Terminal-restriction fragment length polymorphism analyses of bacterial rRNA extracted from the guts of field-collected individuals of Harpalus pensylvanicus (DeGeer) and Anisodactylus sanctaecrucis (F.) (Coleoptera: Carabidae) revealed that gut-associated bacterial communities were of low diversity. Individuals from the same beetle species possessed similar bacterial community profiles, but the two species exhibited unique profiles. Bacterial 16S rRNA clone libraries constructed for the two beetle species showed that H. pensylvanicus had a more diverse community (six operational taxonomic units [OTUs]) compared with A. sanctaecrucis (three OTUs). Only one OTU, closely related to Hafnia alvei, was common between the two beetle species. Cloned partial 16S rRNA sequences for each OTU were most closely matched to the following cultivated bacteria: Serratia sp., Burkholderia fungorum, and H. alvei and Phenylbacterium sp., Caedibacter sp., Spiroplasma sp., Enterobacter strain B-14, and Weissella viridescens, representing the divisions Alpha-, Beta- and Gammaproteobacteria, Mollicutes, and Bacilli. Some, but not all of these organisms have been previously associated with insects. The identification of bacteria uniquely and consistently associated with these ground beetles provides the basis for further investigation of species-specific functional roles.

Sinipta dalmani Stal (Orthoptera: Acrididae) is an Argentinean grasshopper that shows considerable variation in adult male body size in natural populations at “El Palmar” National Park (Entre Rios, Argentina). Part of this variation is due to the M4 pericentric inversion polymorphism. A study of male mating success in competition cages showed that mated males are larger and have lower inversion dosage than unmated males. In the present work, body sexual dimorphism as well as the phenotypic influence of the M4 inversion on female body size and its possible association with mating success was analyzed. A notable body size sexual dimorphism was evident, with females being significantly larger than males. The phenotypic effect of M4 on female body size reported here is in agreement with the results mentioned above for males and suggests a significant genetic (chromosome) component in the determination of third tibia length in females. Female mating success was analyzed through both univariate and multivariate approaches. The analysis of selection differentials showed that third tibia length might be negatively selected during mating. The analysis of selection gradient, demonstrated that this trait might be considered as the most probable target of selection. The female differential mating success detected in S. dalmani suggests a significant male investment in offspring.

Descendents of Apis mellifera scutellata Lepeletier (Hymenoptera: Apidae) (the Africanized honey bee) arrived in the United States in 1990. Whether this was the first introduction is uncertain. A survey of feral honey bees from non-Africanized areas of the southern United States revealed three colonies (from Georgia, Texas, and New Mexico) with a diagnostic African mitochondrial DNA cytochrome b/BglII fragment pattern. To assess maternal origin of these colonies, we developed a primer pair for amplification of a cytochrome b fragment and sequenced using internal sequencing primers. Samples of the three reported honey bee colonies plus another 42 representing the 10 subspecies known to have been introduced in the United States were sequenced. Of the three colonies, the colonies from Texas and New Mexico matched subspecies of European maternal ancestry, whereas the colony from Georgia was of African ancestry. Contrary to expectations, the mitotype of the latter colony was more similar to that exhibited by sub-Saharan A. m. scutellata than to the mitotypes common in north African A. m. intermissa Maa or Portuguese and Spanish A. m. iberiensis Engel. This finding was consistent with anecdotal evidence that A. m. scutellata has been sporadically introduced into the United States before the arrival of the Africanized honey bee from South America.

This study is the first to statistically analyze the stylet probing/penetration behaviors of Lygus (Hemiptera: Miridae) bugs, and the external body movements associated with both probing and nonprobing, via electrical penetration graph (EPG) and videorecording, respectively. Behavioral quantification allows powerful statistical comparisons among host plants or other treatments. Thus, statistical analysis of data has played an important role in EPG research. However, few attempts have been made to standardize types and terminology used for statistical parameters. We provide here the first complete system of organization and terminology for nonsequential EPG parameters. Widespread adoption of these terms will allow standardization in EPG research. Our EPG and video data reveal for the first time the stylet penetration behaviors of nymphal L. hesperus that cause cotton square damage, and the mechanism involved. L. hesperus nymphs spent only 15% of their time on squares probing; the remainder was spent standing motionless in place, grooming, or in sensory exploration. While probing, two thirds of their time was spent in laceration/salivation and one third in ingestion. Thus, L. hesperus nymphs actively spread out numerous, minute injections of their macerating watery saliva, deeply drilled/lacerated into all parts of the developing square. After injection of saliva within the square, the insect then stands and waits for solubilization of the square’s cell contents, and then quickly ingests the slurry. The extensive laceration by the stylets may, secondarily, potentiate salivary maceration by mechanically rupturing cell walls. The plant responses to such behavior are thus summarized as “mechanical cell rupture-enhanced maceration.”

The social biology of many species of allodapine bees from diverse genera has been well studied. However, to infer major evolutionary trends within this tribe as well as plesiomorphic traits in deeper phylogenetic nodes, gaps in our knowledge of social strategies within the poorly understood genus Halterapis must first be investigated. The Malagasy members of this genus comprise 17 described species, but nesting and social biology of only one of these species has been described. Here, we present accounts of the social biology of two other species within this clade, namely, Halterapis isaloensis Brooks and Pauly and Halterapis seyrigi (Benoist). Colony sizes ranged from single-female nests to a seven female nest in H. seyrigi and a nine female nest in H. isaloensis. Nests of both species most commonly contained one to three females and approximately one-half of all colonies collected were multifemale. Both species display strong size-based reproductive skew within multifemale nests and seem to have strongly female-based sex allocation. When added to previous studies, our findings show that sociality is well developed in all major clades of the allodapines, adding support to the notion that sociality is an ancestral trait of the allodapines. This indicates that extant members of the Allodapini do not represent early stages of social evolution and that forms of sociality have frequently reached very complex levels within the tribe.

A bee assassin bug, Apiomerus flaviventris Herrich-Schäffer (Hemiptera: Reduviidae), of the arid or semiarid southwestern North America is known to exploit resins from plants and apply them to the eggs for protection. To elucidate the source and possible functions of the resin, A. flaviventris were collected in the Anza Borrego Desert State Park, California, and observed in the laboratory. Female A. flaviventris collected the resin from a desert perennial shrub, brittlebush, Encelia farinosa Gray ex Torr. (Asteraceae). Bioassays with the predatory ant species Forelius pruinosus (Roger) and Linepithema humile (Mayr) (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) indicated that the brittlebush resin coating is important in preventing A. flaviventris eggs from being picked up by omnivorous predators.

For social insects, queen fecundity is central to queen survival. In addition, coordinating workload, in the form of hungry larvae, with labor, in the form of workers, is critical to queen survival. Such coordination is accomplished by transporting waste products from molting fourth instars to queens that then amplify queen egg production. The source of the fecundity-amplifying factors that are transmitted from larvae to queens is still under debate. This article reports a case study on the red imported fire ant, Solenopsis invicta Buren, demonstrating that larval excretory products amplified queen fecundity rather than larval fecal fluids, larval saliva, or nutrients. Queens were active participants in their intake of fecundity-amplifying factors, often grazing over larvae, squeezing and ingesting the expelled droplet. In summary, these findings support a queen-centered rather than a worker-centered model for the social regulation of queen fecundity and survival.

We tested the hypothesis that contact pheromones mediate mate recognition in Prionus californicus Motschulsky, a species of longhorned beetle (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae) in the primitive subfamily Prioninae. Males attempted to mate with live females only after contacting them with their antennae, and 80% of males showed an identical response to freshly killed females. Males did not attempt to mate with dead females that had been extracted with solvent, suggesting that mate recognition cues had been eliminated. When the solvent extract was applied to carcasses of the same dead females, however, 56% of the males again attempted to mate with them. A preliminary analysis of crude solvent extracts of adult beetles revealed that adults have at least 24 different cuticular hydrocarbons and that the sexes differ in relative proportions of some compounds that may serve as the contact pheromone. This report provides the first evidence that contact pheromones play an important role in mate recognition in the more primitive longhorned beetles.

Predictors of male monarch butterfly mating success have eluded researchers for years. Although it has long been known that there is variation in male mating success in this species, the source of this variation remains unclear. We used digital image analysis techniques to measure fine-scale variation in three components of the orange color (hue, saturation and brightness of the orange) of the forewings of 174 males at a level of detail that has not been possible until recently, and we compared this information to the mating success of the males in captivity. A second experiment involved addition of orange coloration to the wings of 93 males before mating trials. Our results indicate that one component of the orange color (saturation) correlated with mating success in our first experiment. Furthermore, wing color manipulations had no effect, but the original saturation values of the males in the second experiment were directly related to mating success. Our results provide the first evidence that wing color in monarch butterflies relates to mating success, and they serve as an important starting point for future research.