Inferences about space use, activity and reproduction require an understanding of the behavioural processes that influence animal movements. Large volumes of movement data derived from GPS telemetry devices offer the opportunity to analyse animal behaviour on a very fine scale. GPS and satellite collars were fitted to female brown hyaenas (Parahyaenabrunnea) as part of a long-term monitoring study in southwestern Namibia. The date of parturition was determined by comparing changes in movement data and successful GPS positioning attempts. Distances moved on the day of parturition dropped to zero and frequent, unsuccessful GPS positioning attempts on the same day indicated locations in underground dens. Daily distances moved pre-partum, during parturition and post-partum differed significantly and reflected behavioural changes that can be monitored and used to draw inferences about the reproductive state of female brown hyaenas. The main predictors for den occupancy were the age of cubs, distance to closest food source and individual den. Mean occupancy over the entire denning period was 23 days, indicating that brown hyaenas readily move between dens, but individual breeding females showed den site fidelity. Therefore, GPS telemetry is a useful tool to accurately determine parturition in brown hyaenas to draw inferences about den occupancy.

Conservation agencies rely on accurate wildlife population estimates to inform managementpractices. The importance of accuracy increases with smaller, threatened populations, butso too does the challenge in achieving it, especially for evasive species in low-visibilityterrain. Non-invasive survey techniques have been successfully applied in such conditions;however, each technique bears a unique set of limitations and often deliver different results.The shy Knysna elephants (Loxodonta africana)occur at extremely low numbers in difficultterrain, and the past few decades have seen debates raging about their numbers, fuelled inpart by differing survey outcomes, although a decline has been apparent over the last 150years. We surveyed the known range of the Knysna elephant population for 15 months(July 2016 – October 2017), using camera traps, and identified one adult female elephant.The reliability of using camera trapping for surveying animal populations in conditionssuch as the Knysna elephant is compared with the previous faecal DNA genotypingsurvey. We conclude that this population has declined to a single individual and discuss theimplications for local conservation authorities. Additionally, we highlight the importance of designing rigorous survey approaches where only a few individual animals are present.

The aardwolf (Proteles cristata) is a unique, insectivorous species of the family Hyaenidae. It occupies a disjunct range in eastern and southern Africa and is possibly a remaining member of a historical dog-like hyaena clade. Although both local and global population status and trends are largely unknown, aardwolves are not uncommon in arid grasslands and the IUCN conservation status of Least Concern appears to be justified. However, they are one of the least studied of the four hyaena species, and we have scarce information about the genetic structure of aardwolf populations. Here, we present the first complete aardwolf mitochondrial genomes and provide novel information about aardwolf evolutionary origins and genetic structure within a single population. Through the investigation of complete mitochondrial genomes from five individuals from a single population within South Africa, we find the mitochondrial diversity of this population to be neither particularly high nor low compared to a number of other mammalian species. Moreover, we also provide additional evidence towards the basal position of the aardwolf within Hyaenidae with a divergence time of 13.0 Ma (95% CI 10.1–16.4 Ma) from all other extant hyaena species.

Large carnivores are frequently reintroduced into protected areas to compensate for anthropogenic-driven losses. The lack of post-release monitoring has impeded our knowledge on how these carnivores adapt to their new environment, which often results in uncertainty of whether or not reintroductions were successful. Between 2011 and 2012, six leopards (Panthera pardus) and three lions (Panthera leo) were reintroduced into Majete Wildlife Reserve, Malawi, and each animal was fitted with a GPS or VHF collar to monitor their post-release movements and behaviour. All individuals survived longer than two and a half years post-release and successful breeding events were recorded for all females, except one leopard. Released felids showed little initial exploratory behaviour, none homed to their capture location and all individuals displayed at least some degree of release site fidelity. Lions established permanent ranges between five and seven months after release, with a mean home range of 82.1km² (95%, T-LoCoH). Three leopards established permanent ranges between four and eight months, with a mean home range of 181.6 km² (95%; T-LoCoH). Two leopards did not establish fixed home ranges, but rather exhibited continuous shifts in range which were likely due to natural disruptive events such as season, prey availability and other competitors. Our findings suggest that reintroduced felids may take longer to establish permanent home ranges than previously thought, highlighting the importance of long-term post-release monitoring. Based on our study, reintroduction appears to be an effective and viable tool to restore large carnivores in protected areas in Malawi.

Animal-mediated nutrient transfer facilitates nutrient cycling in marine, freshwater and terrestrial ecosystems via the deposition of aquatically-derived nutrients such as nitrogen (N) and carbon (C). This mode of nutrient transfer has not been studied in southern African river systems. We investigated nutrient deposition associated with defecation, urination, and scent-marking at latrine sites of a semi-aquatic predator species (African clawless otters Aonyx capensis) in a riparian zone of a Bankenveld savanna ecosystem. We provide a comparison of stable nitrogen isotopes (δ¹⁵N) measured in soil, vegetation and faecal material, between latrine and paired control sites. Latrine sites displayed higher δ¹⁵N values than the paired non-latrine sites, but only at the area of direct deposition (soil surfaces). This effect dissipated as the distance from direct contact increased, while no significant difference in δ15N values was detected for sub-surface soil samples. Plants displayed varying trends of enriched δ15N values between the latrine and paired control sites. These results suggest that several factors and processes such as leaching, mineralization, ammonia volatilization, and nitrogen acquisition influence the nutrient availability within latrine-soil-vegetation systems in riparian zones of African savanna ecosystems.

Cross-species amplification using domestic cat microsatellite primers is the primary method used for nuclear genetic research in lions (Panthera leo). Genetic differences introduced over 10.8 million years of divergence between the two species make these markers problematic when using low quality and low quantity DNA, a common issue in wildlife genetic research. To increase amplification success of microsatellites in the lion, miniSTRs (<150 bp) with primers designed to be closer to the target region and specific to the lion were developed. Lion specific STRs were successfully designed for 14 of 17 commonly used microsatellites, 10 of 14 being miniSTRs, all with 100% amplification success when tested on 30 lion samples with DNA of varying quality and quantity.

Long-term growth rates of ungulate populations can be affected where disproportionate mortality occurs to adult females through predation. To investigate differences between lions (Panthera leo) and wild dogs (Lycaon pictus) in relative selection for female prey, we analysed ranger records for impala (Aepyceros melampus) and kudu (Strepsiceros zambesiensis) from Madikwe and Pilanesberg Nature reserves, South Africa. Each kill was categorized by sex of killed animal (female, male), likely predator (lion, wild dog) and season of kill (early wet, late wet, early dry, late dry). Our findings at Madikwe and Pilanesberg show that wild dog kill data for both kudu and impala are female-biased whereas lion kill data for the two ungulate species are male-biased.

We investigated the presence of medium-sized and large mammals utilizing by-catch data from a camera trapping survey in the Mangwe District in South West Zimbabwe, an unprotected commercial livestock farming area which is impacted by human encroachment, poaching and trophy hunting. The camera trapping survey was carried out from 23 October to 5 December 2009, covered an area of 200 km² and was initially intended to estimate the population density of leopards (Panthera pardus). The study area was split into two contiguous subsections, with each section sampled for a total of 20 days using 20 cameras. Camera trap photographs were identified to species level, then compared to a list of species thought to occur in the area according to available literature, as well as sightings from professional hunters and local landowners. Twenty-seven out of 38 medium-sized and large mammals thought to occur in the area were photographed. After 26 survey days (day six in section two), all ungulate species present in the area were photographed. However, the more elusive and less common carnivore species were not all recorded during the study. Both spotted (Crocuta crocuta) and brown hyaenas (Parahyaena brunnea) were once thought to be locally extinct or transient in the area but our results demonstrate that they may now be resident. Species inventories are useful to record species presence, particularly in data-poor areas where limited information exists. In areas where trophy hunting and poaching are high, like the Mangwe District, such information is critical to carefully monitor populations and allow for assessment of future management interventions.

Although wild fallow deer (Dama dama) are abundant in South Africa, they remain overlooked as a potential protein source and little is known about their carcass production potential. Our study aimed to determine the carcass characteristics, meat yields and offal contributions of fallow deer harvested in South Africa, as well as the effect of sex thereupon. Slaughter weights, warm carcass weights and cold carcass weights were higher in male (n = 8) fallow deer versus females (n = 14), and in pregnant females (n = 5) compared to non-pregnant females (n = 9). Similarly, dressing percentages were higher in males (62%) than females (59%), but were comparable to, or surpassed, those of other African game species and domestic livestock. Consumable offal (excluding stomach and intestines) contributed 10% and 9% to the slaughter weights of males and females, respectively, with some significant sex and pregnancy effects on certain offal components. The individual weights of seven muscles (longissimus thoracis et lumborum, infraspinatus, supraspinatus, biceps femoris, semimembranosus, semitendinosus, psoas major ) did not differ between males and females. However, male fallow deer had significantly higher total meat and bone weights than females even though no differences were observed for the meat-to-bone ratios between males and females. These baseline data should provide the impetus for increased utilization of fallow deer by the South African game meat industry and strengthen the contribution of these animals to domestic food security.

Management of protected areas requires an understanding of the long-term population trends of large mammal species that may influence ecosystem functioning. Common eland (Tragelaphus oryx) are the most abundant large mammal species in the uKhahlamba-Drakensberg Park. Aerial and ground surveys have been conducted over the years to monitor the common eland population. This study addressed long-term trends in population size, structure, distribution and mortality of the common eland between 1942 and 2018, examining changes in relation to climate, natural impacts, management, and efficacy of surveys. The common eland population in the Drakensberg remained relatively stable from 1942 to 1982, then increased between 1983 and 1990. However, a continuous decline was observed between 2003 and 2018 concomitant with a 37% reduction in distribution range within the Park. Adults constituted 59.4% of the population over the entire period, while subadults and calves accounted for 19.1% and 18.8%, respectively, with the remaining 2.7% of unknown ages. The ratio of adults: subadults: calves was 1: 0.32: 0.32 and males: females was 1: 3.63, indicating a skewed sex ratio and a low number of juveniles in the population. Human activities had a substantial impact on the population, with 30.3% of mortalities attributed to poaching. However, permitted offtakes of an unknown number may be the most important cause of mortality. Increased movement of eland onto farmlands outside of the protected area appears to have contributed to a decline in their distribution within the Park in recent years; however, this does not affect population trend since those on farmland are still included in counts. There is no cause for concern regarding the population trend at present; however, if the observed population decline continues well beyond the population numbers recorded in 1942, then there is cause for a management response by Ezemvelo KwaZulu-Natal Wildlife for the common eland population in the Drakensberg.

Perceptions of people towards the spotted hyaena (Crocuta crocuta) outside protected areas are central to the management programmes targeted at conserving large carnivores. We conducted interviews using a questionnaire to assess the attitudes and perceptions of people (n = 355) towards the spotted hyaena in western Zimbabwe from October 2014 to February 2015. The study area was split into Environmental Conservation Areas (ECAs) and communal areas based on their distance from the protected area (Fuller Forest) boundary. People's perceptions and attitudes were analysed using multinomial logistic regression. Top model ranking showed that the distance from protected area, livelihood source, and extent of livestock killed by spotted hyaenas had an influence on the perceptions of villagers about the species. Furthermore, it was noted that incentives may play a pivotal role in moderating the human–spotted hyaena conflict. It is recommended that a modified incentive-driven ECA model should be embraced in communal areas to promote and encourage positive attitudes towards the spotted hyaena and other wildlife.

Large charismatic predators have been re-introduced to several fenced reserves (<1000 km²); consequently, their populations can be at risk to declining genetic diversity and catastrophic events such as disease. Welgevonden Game Reserve (WGR) experienced an outbreak of canine distemper virus (CDV) in its lion (Panthera leo) population between October 2015 and February 2016. The decline was attributed to both direct CDV mortalities and indirect management interventions with a population decrease of 93%. In addition, the first documented cases of CDV were recorded in a brown hyaena (Hyaena brunnea) population. This article shares the management of a disease outbreak in WGR's lion population. It discusses the population history, the making of clinical observations leading to diagnoses and recommends strategies that can be implemented to prevent extirpation. The sourcing of new lions from established meta-populations, and the use of vaccinations to proactively prevent future outbreaks in managed wild lions is discussed. In less than two years the population has recovered. This paper provides a case report for wildlife practitioners of small populations of managed wild lions.

Fire ecological research within the Cape Floristic Region is largely restricted to fynbos vegetation and, amongst fauna, birds. Nothing is known about post-fire responses of birds in subtropical thicket, which burns on much longer cycles than fynbos. Extensive fires in subtropical thicket along the southeastern Cape coast (in the Knysna area during June 2017) presented the opportunity to assess the response of these birds to fire. We predicted that (1) fire reduces bird species diversity, richness and abundance in thicket during the first two years post-fire; and (2) fire changes feeding guild composition and results in the loss of frugivorous birds. Bird surveys (point counts) were undertaken between 12- and 21-months post-fire in burnt (n =7) and unburnt (n = 7) thicket sites to determine bird community structure and abundance. A total of 66 bird species and 2404 individuals were recorded of which 52 species and 1176 individuals were recorded in burnt thicket and 60 species and 1228 individuals in unburnt thicket. Ten species occurred only in burnt thicket and 13 species only in unburnt thicket. There was a 21% loss of bird species (mainly forest birds) after fire. The Sørenson similarity coefficient was 60% for bird species composition between burnt and unburnt thicket. The most common feeding guilds in terms of richness and abundance in both burnt and unburnt thicket were insectivores and generalists. Frugivores were most abundant in unburnt thicket, whereas granivores were most abundant in burnt thicket. Changes in thicket bird community composition following the fire were minor and are likely to be short-lived as thicket shrubs re-sprout vigorously after fire resulting in rapid recovery of vegetation and thus bird habitat structure.