The desert locust, Schistocerca gregaria (Forskål, 1775) (Orthoptera, Acrididae), may feed in the Sahara desert on Lotus corniculatus (Fabaceae), which is rich in linamarin, a cyanogenic glucoside that is usually toxic for herbivores. The relationship between food consumption and the activity of five isoenzymes in the motor muscles of desert locust was investigated. Nutritional indices were estimated in fifth instar female nymphs. Consumption and assimilation rates on L. corniculatus were significantly lower than those on wheat seedlings (Triticum aestivum) as control plant. The efficiency of ingested (ECI) and digested (ECD) food conversion was significantly lower in the nymphs fed on L. corniculatus than for those fed on wheat seedlings. The relative growth rate (RGR) and relative consumption rate (RCR) for nymphs feeding on L. corniculatus were significantly lower. The development duration of nymphs fed on Lotus was relatively longer than that for those fed on wheat seedlings. Nymphs fed on L. corniculatus lost weight. Electrophoretic assays of five enzymes were assessed in adult females to examine the feeding effect on L. corniculatus and T. aestivum on the isoenzymatic patterns of these enzymes. Considered enzymes were acid phosphatase (Acph), alcohol dehydrogenase (Adh), β-esterase (β-Est), malic enzyme (Mal) and malate dehydrogenase (Mdh). Enzymes were tested in femur and wing muscles of adult females. Feeding on T. aestivum seemed to be more efficient for the activity of the metabolic enzymes (Acph, Mal and Mdh) than feeding on L. corniculatus. Their isoenzymes were relatively more expressed in the case of feeding on T. aestivum. The activity of esterase isoenzymes (β-Est) was higher in the case of feeding on L. corniculatus thus indicating the role of this particular enzyme in detoxifying plant linamarin allelochemicals.

This study addresses geographic variation of body size and shape and of allele frequencies at 21 microsatellite loci in southern African populations of the desert locust, Schistocercagregaria. These populations, which belong to the subspecies S. g. flaviventris, lack the capacity to change phase and to swarm relative to the northern populations of the nominate subspecies, S. g. gregaria. We reported overall genetic and morphological similarities among localities that cover most of the subspecies range. Of particular interest, the level of genetic diversity was moderately lower than in the swarming subspecies of the northern range. In addition, S. g. flaviventris populations were genetically homogeneous, such as observed in the northern range of the nominate subspecies. This result can be explained by north—southwest seasonal migration to follow rainfall.

Cashew, Anacardium occidentale L. is an important export crop in Benin, but incurs serious damage from the cashew wood borer Apate terebrans Pallas. In spite of its economic importance, the population dynamics of this beetle have never been studied, thus precluding any science-based development and implementation of control strategies. The spatial and temporal abundance pattern of A.terebrans was therefore monitored in 17 mature cashew orchards distributed across three agro-ecological zones in Benin. In each orchard, 30 cashew trees were chosen at random and inspected monthly for two consecutive years. As this insect feeds inside branches and trunks by boring holes, direct observations of adults inside the tree are not possible. Therefore infestations of trees were estimated by the occurrence and number of fresh entry holes. Over the two-year observation period, infestations in the cashew trees by A.terebrans started in September, peaked in January–February and sharply declined thereafter, reaching zero by July–August. Whereas the infestation rates were statistically similar between sampling years or among agro-ecological zones, they differed significantly among sampling months. Aggregation indices calculated using Taylor's power law indicated that A.terebrans has an aggregated spatial distribution. Values of the Spatial Analysis by Distance IndicEs (SADIE) index indicated that the spatial pattern of the infestation in a given year does not depend on the pattern observed in the previous years, suggesting that A.terebrans generally prefers to infest new trees. Implications of our findings for the development, implementation and monitoring of effective control strategies against A.terebrans are discussed.

Growth and development of insects in the laboratory cultures can be significantly enhanced by improving the nutrient quality of their culturing medium. One way to achieve this is by including add-ons in the food medium. This approach is commonly followed in culturing red flour beetle Tribolium castaneum (Herbst) (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae) which is used as a model insect for a variety of laboratory studies. Commonly yeast is used as a food admixture for escalating beetle production and promoting oviposition. In this study, we aim to evaluate some alternates for yeast, i.e. agar-agar and folic acid at three levels (3.33 %, 6.66%and 10 %) for enhancing laboratory culturing of T. castaneum. The results demonstrated that highest adult production was achieved by adding yeast at the rate of 6.66%(279±23.24) to the food medium while agar-agar and folic acid produced more adults albeit with prolonged larval duration of about 5 days as compared to yeast when ad-mixed at rates of 10%(196.6±21.52) and 3.33%(164.8±3.51). The experiment confirms yeast as a best add-on for enhancing the T. castaneum population but agar-agar and folic acid could be used as substitute when the cultures are required to be maintained vitally without fast developments, for maintaining master cultures in the laboratories.

Henicovalva gen. n. (Lepidoptera: Geometridae: Ennominae), a new genus of ennomine geometrids characterised by unusually complex male and female genitalia, is described and illustrated. In addition to the East African type species H. xera (Prout, L. B., 1922) comb. n., which is transferred from Odontopera Stephens, 1831, nine additional members of this genus are described as new to science: H. serulensis sp. n. from northeastern Botswana, H. mpisiensis sp. n. from Swaziland, H. lebomboensis sp. n. from northern KwaZulu-Natal, H. dissoluta sp. n. from northeastern Tanzania, H. staudei sp. n. from central Kenya, H. praedicta sp. n. from southwestern Kenya, H. pulveraria sp. n. from Rwanda, H. negus sp. n. from Ethiopia, and H. yemenensis sp. n. from the Yemen Arab Republic. Although the recorded distribution of Henicovalva gen. n. is disjunct, this may be due to sampling bias. The phylogenetic position of the new genus within Ennominae is discussed, and it is tentatively placed in Ennomini. Illustrations of the adults and male and female genitalia, where known, are provided, as is a map showing the distribution of the southern African species. The study is complemented by a Gazetteer.

A revision of the current knowledge of the Afrotropical species of Aegilips Haliday, 1835 is given. The previously known South African Aegilips capensisKieffer, 1912 is redescribed and its distribution area extended, being cited for the first time in other countries of sub-Saharan Africa. Three new species are described: Aegilips aethiopicus Mata-Casanova & Pujade-Villar sp. n., Aegilips foveata Mata-Casanova & Pujade-Villar sp. n. and Aegilips virungae Mata-Casanova & Pujade-Villar sp. n. Diagnostic characters and data about biology, distribution and affinities with other Aegilips species are discussed. An identification key for the Afrotropical species of Aegilips is given.

We present details on bat flies of the families Nycteribiidae and Streblidae parasitising an endemic Malagasy fruit bat, Rousettus madagascariensis, including aspects of species diversity, rates of parasitism and sex ratios. Data were collected from 639 bats occupying the same cave day roost site in the Parc National d'Ankarana, extreme northern Madagascar, and visited on three occasions: end of dry season (September 2014 and September 2015) and during the rainy season (January 2015). From a collection of over 3500 bat flies, two species were identified — Eucampsipoda madagascarensis (n = 3227) of the family Nycteribiidae and Megastrebla wenzeli (n = 350) of the family Streblidae. The number of E. madagascarensis per bat host showed seasonal variation with a notable reduction during the rainy season. The sex ratio of E. madagascarensis was significantly biased towards males, and this pattern was more pronounced during the dry season. In comparison, M. wenzeli, which were distinctly less common, showed statistical differences between the three site visits in prevalence, but not for the number of parasites per host. For E. madagascarensis parasitism rates varied with age and sex, with adult male R. madagascariensis having more ectoparasites than females, subadults and neonates, while no difference in parasitism rate was found for M. wenzeli based on host age and sex.

The invasive and predatory harlequin lady beetle, Harmonia axyridis, has been introduced as a biological control agent to many agricultural areas worldwide and has now spread from agricultural to natural habitats where it threatens native arthropod biodiversity. The aim of this study was to determine how H. axyridis uses the local landscape during different times of the year in the Western Cape Province, South Africa. We also determined its association to native arthropod diversity. Harmonia axyridis adults and larvae, as well as arthropod herbivores, predators and other ladybeetles were sampled every second month for a year with a vacuum sampler in vineyards, natural habitats, edges between natural habitats and vineyards, and urban areas. Highest adult and larval H. axyridis abundance occurred in urban areas during all sampling periods, with a peak in May and July (winter). Vineyards and natural vegetation had very low abundances of H. axyridis. Harmonia axyridis had some, but limited effect on the local arthropod community abundance. There was also a negative relationship between H. axyridis and the overall arthropod community as well as a positive relationship between H. axyridis abundance and that of other ladybeetles. Harmonia axyridis appeared to influence the assemblage composition of other ladybeetles and herbivores. Overall, the native arthropod assemblage responded primarily to season and habitat and secondary to the presence of H. axyridis. Harmonia axyridis has a strong association with the urban environment, seemingly in association with the exotic aphid Tuberculatus annulatus that feeds on cultivated oak trees. Outside of the urban area, H. axyridis numbers were very low and its ecological impacts may be negligible.

The efficacy of two commercially available traps used for monitoring Bactrocera oleae (Rossi) (olive fruit fly) were tested in the Western Cape Province, South Africa. We compared the efficacy of yellow Delta traps and yellow Bucket traps, baited with Olive Fruit Fly lure, which attracts both B. oleae males and females. Traps were tested in 20 commercial olive groves, at three locations during autumn (March–May) in 2013. The yellow Delta traps caught significantly more B. oleae than the yellow Bucket traps, as well as significantly more B. oleae males than females. Ceratitis capitata (Wiedemann) and Bactrocera biguttula (Bezzi) were also trapped during the study. For both species, yellow Delta traps caught significantly more individuals than yellow Bucket traps. This study showed that yellow Delta traps performed better than yellow Bucket traps, in monitoring B. oleae activity in commercial olive groves during autumn, prior to harvest

Cordia africana grows in the Middle East and Africa. It is a multipurpose tree with several groups of insect pests that affect the seeds, fruits and leaves of this species. The aim of this study was to identify the causative agent responsible for leaf defoliation in Raya Azebo District and Wondo Genet College of Forestry and Natural Resource in Ethiopia. Two leaf defoliators viz. Dictyla poecilla and Compseuta brevicarinata were found associated with leaves of C. africana that were raised in Facha Gama Research Station and Wondo Genet, respectively. The insects were limited to different geographical areas and higher rate of defoliation was recorded in Facha Gama than in Wondo Genet. This is the first report on C. africana hosting D. poecilla and C. brevicarinata.

Harmonia axyridis (Pallas) (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae) is an exotic ladybird, first recorded in South Africa in 2004, where it was introduced factitiously. In this study the seasonal occurrence of H. axiridis and other coccinellids were monitored in four vineyards and the adjacent windbreaks over three growing seasons in the Western Cape Province, South Africa. Harmonia axyridis made up the highest mean number of coccinellids collected per site over the collecting period, followed by Hippodamia variegata, Cheilomenes lunata, Exochomusflavipes and Micraspis sp. No indigenous parasitoids were observed attacking H. axyridis. The numbers of H. axyridis on the vines were negatively correlated with temperature but positively with rainfall. In view of the migration of H. axyridis from the vines in December, they appear not to pose any risk of contaminating grapes during harvest and tainting wine as most wine grapes are harvested from January onwards.

Woolly apple aphid (WAA), Eriosoma lanigerum, is an important pest of apples, occurring throughout the apple-growing regions of the world. Entomopathogenic nematodes (EPNs) of the families Steinernematidae and Heterorhabditidae have generated intensive interest as inundative biocontrol agents of pest insects. Considering resistance of WAA against certain insecticides and the inability of parasitoids to control the aphid successfully early in the season, EPNs offer an alternative biocontrol option. The susceptibility of WAA to seven indigenous EPN species was tested in laboratory bioassays in which Steinernema yirgalemense and Heterorhabditis zealandica were identified as being the most effective against the subterranean adult females of the WAA, with infection rates of 39%and 28 %, respectively. The effect of E. lanigerum size showed that the last instar is most susceptible to infection, whereas none of the crawlers were infected. Increasing the exposure time of the aphids and nematode concentration had no positive effect on the WAA infection rate. On evaluating the ability of infective juveniles of S. yirgalemense and H. zealandica to tolerate exposure to imidacloprid, both nematode species were found to be compatible at the recommended dosage, with no significant nematode mortality having occurred. Neither did imidacloprid affect the ability of the nematodes to infect their hosts after 24 h exposure. The associated bacteria, isolated from 12 EPN isolates, showed a visual inhibitory growth effect, when they were exposed to the haemolymph of WAA. From these results, it is concluded that, although S. yirgalemense showed some infection of WAA, its low mortality and inability to complete its life cycle within the host, limits its effectiveness as a biological control agent against the subterranean stages of WAA in apple orchards.

During routine mass rearing of Culex pipiens L., 46 % mortality rate was recorded among 3-day-old larvae in the late summer, 2014, at Cairo University, Giza, Egypt. An analysis of the water in the rearing plastic cups and the dead larvae revealed the presence of the fungus Nomuraea rileyi (Farlow) Samson. A comparative study was carried out using life-table parameters of the fungal-infected population of Cx. pipiens and fungus-free population (control) under laboratory conditions (30 ± 0.10 °C, RH 52.5 ± 7.8 % and photoperiod 16L:8D). Fungal-infected stages of Cx. pipiens exhibited a decrease in longevity (larvae, 5.89 ± 0.063 days; adult males, 7.8 ± 0.75 days; adult females, 10.83 ± 1.6 days). The mean generation time of the healthy population (22.09 ± 0.82 days) was not significantly different from that of the infected population (22.25 ± 0.08 days), nearly the same mean generation time. The fungal-infected Cx. pipiens population replicated itself 4.62 ± 1.45 times with a very low exponential rate of daily increase of 0.0688 ± 0.0154/day. However, the fungus-free population showed a higher replication rate of 38.10 ± 11.80 times, with a higher daily rate of increase (0.1648 ± 0.0167/day). Females of the fungal-infected Cx. pipiens, exhibited a decrease in the fertility, 25.67 ± 7.70 eggs/female, as compared to the females from the control population, 163.29 ± 40.64 eggs/female. Data of the present study suggested the possibility of using N. rileyi as a safe bio-control agent against the development of the larvae of Cx. pipiens.

Extract of the plant Costus speciosus was evaluated for its potential acaricidal and ovicidal activities against the two-spotted spider mite, Tetranychus urticae Koch, for the first time under laboratory conditions. The acaricidal activity was performed by studying the mortality, fecundity, fertility and offspring development of adult females at two different temperatures. The LC₅₀ value of C. speciosus is 2.3 %. Treatment significantly affected the fecundity of the females, percentage of hatched eggs, percentage of eggs reaching adult stages and duration of each life cycle stage. The acaricidal efficacy of this extract is temperature dependent. The greater susceptibility of T. urticae to C. speciosus was recorded at a lower temperature. Concerning the ovicidal activity of C. speciosus, extract exhibited 79.67 ± 4.01 % mortality on eggs. It also significantly delays the egg hatching of T. urticae compared to the control. Results showed that hatching started on the sixth day post-deposition in the treated group compared to the fourth day in the control group. All hatched eggs turned into nymphs in the control group while treatment reduced the number of hatched eggs and caused death of all hatched larvae before reaching nymphal stages. Extract of C. speciosus has promising acaricidal and ovicidal activities that could lead to the development of new bio-acaricides and is worth further investigation.

The larvae of the insect Rhynchophorus phoenicis are consumed by the rural people in Nigeria. The proximate composition of the larvae was determined by standard analytical methods. The amino acid composition was determined using an Amino Acid Analyzer and the fatty acid profile was determined with the aid of a gas chromatograph-mass spectrophotometer. The vitamin and mineral contents were analysed by high pressure liquid chromatography and atomic absorption spectrophotometry, respectively. The proximate composition in percentage for crude protein, crude lipid, crude carbohydrate, crude fibre and ash content were 24.43±1.30, 15.36±0.82, 3.14±0.13, 2.27±0.28 and 1.00±0.19, respectively. Leucine (6.74 g/100 g protein) and lysine (5.83 g/100 g protein) were the highest essential amino acids present. The major fatty acids were margaric acid (43.4 %), petroselinic acid (31.06 %) and cis-13-octadecenoic acid (20.24 %). The unsaturated/saturated fatty acid ratio was 1:11. The major water-soluble vitamin was vitamin C(11.14 mg/100 g) and the main fat-soluble vitamin was vitamin E (25.18 mg/100 g). The results also indicate that the larvae were low in minerals. This study shows that R. phoenicis larvae can be used as a human food supplement to balance diet.

Invertebrates are essential for ecosystem functioning and have received much attention in biodiversity, conservation and ecological studies. Numerous collection techniques for assessing arthropod diversity exist, but there is little understanding of the consequences of choice of any particular method. This information is essential for project planning and for the interpretation of results. Here we assess sweep netting and suction sampling, two widely used methods for sampling foliage arthropods, and compare them in terms of their efficacy and effort in surveying arthropod biodiversity. Arthropods were collected in paired transects in shrubby fynbos vegetation in the Cape Floristic Region, a biodiversity hotspot. Overall, the vacuum sampling collected significantly more species and individuals than sweep netting, although this was taxon specific. Use of the vacuum sampler significantly increased the time spent in the field per transect and it also collected significantly more dead plant biomass than the sweep net, thus requires a longer period to sort samples afterwards. Sweep netting caused significantly more damage to plants, an important consideration when working in sensitive ecosystems. Assemblage composition of arthropods collected by the two methods were significantly different with only about half of all arthropod species collected shared between the two methods. Our results show that overall, the vacuum sampler outperformed the sweep net in terms of arthropod species richness and abundance and minimising damage to vegetation, but that it takes considerably longer to collect the relevant data. When more representative biodiversity surveying is needed, the use of both techniques is encouraged.

Carboxylesterase-mediated insecticide resistance was studied in Spodoptera litura Fab with three different populations from Varanasi, Delhi and Sonepat. The level of susceptibility to pyrethroid insecticides (cypermethrin and bifenthrin), activity of carboxylesterase (CarE) and amino acid substitutions in esterase gene of each population were investigated. Insecticide bioassay revealed that Sonepat and Delhi populations of S. litura were 2.2- and 2.1-fold resistant to cypermethrin and bifenthrin, respectively. Delhi and Sonepat populations had elevated activity of enzyme level of 26.47±0.21 and 28.02±0.05, respectively. The Varanasi population (10.09 ± 0.10 μmol/min/mg of protein) exhibited lowest CarE activity. The CarE gene of 500 bp fragment that encodes 167 amino acid residues was characterised in all populations. Cluster analysis of gene sequences revealed that all three populations were 92 to 95% identity and were closely related to other Spodoptera spp. Among the 167 amino acid residues, 27 were identical in all Spodoptera species and seven substitutions were observed. Sequence alignment confirmed no substitution at conserved position and one semiconserved substitution. In the characterised region, the substitution W224S which is responsible for CarE activity reduction in insecticide resistant Culex pipiens was not observed in any of the Spodoptera populations. A strong positive relation (r = 0.99) was observed between the CarE activity and determined LC₅₀. Thus, elevated CarE activity in Delhi and Sonepat field populations was attributed to pyrethroid resistance. Metabolic detoxification mainly appears to be due to overproduction of CarE enzyme in respective populations and not because of amino acid residue changes.

This study aimed to evaluate different modified atmospheres as an environmental friendly procedure for controlling the fennel wasp Systole sp. The tested modified atmospheres (MAs) contained 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70 and 80 % of carbon dioxide (CO₂) in air as well as 97 and 98 % of nitrogen (N₂). Heavy infested fennel seeds were exposed to these MAs at 15, 25 and 35 °C combined with different exposure periods. The wasp emergence from the infested seeds exposed to MAs decreased gradually by increasing the exposure periods, CO₂ or N₂ contents and temperatures. MAs containing CO₂ were more effective than those containing N₂based on the reduction of the adult emergence. Complete reduction in emergence (100 % ) of CO₂ treatments was recorded with 60, 70 and 80 % of CO₂ at 35°C after 15 days of exposure. Meanwhile, in case of 97 and 98 % of N₂, 25 days of exposure were needed to reach zero emergence at 25 and 35 °C. No effect was observed on the emergence of adult wasps from the infested seeds that were exposed to MAs containing 97 or 98 % of N₂ at 15 °C. It is recommended to use at least 60–70 % of CO₂ for 15 days and 97–98 % of N₂ for 25 days at 35°C for controlling Systole sp.

A fumigant toxicity tests were performed by using airtight plastic jars, in which five small glass tubes with perforated lids containing 20 cowpea seeds and four newly emerged Callosobruchus maculatus were placed. Filter paper impregnated with an appropriate volume (5, 10, 20, 40 μl/ml) of the oils were attached to the lower surface of the jar lid. Mortality counts were made at 6, 12, 24 and 48 h after treatment. For ovicidal activity, seeds having 20 eggs altogether were put in a glass vial and the treatments were followed as mentioned earlier. After 48 h of exposure the seeds with eggs were transferred and ovicidal activity was calculated based on the adult emergence. Among the essential oils tested, five oils, viz. camphor, eucalyptus, nutmeg and rosemary showed 100 % mortality even at lower dosages (5 μl) when adults were exposed for 48 h. On the other hand, seven oils showed 100%mortality at higher concentration (40 μl). Ovicidal activity revealed that 9 oils showed good activity against C. maculatus at higher concentrations. Among them four oils, viz. camphor, eucalyptus, rosemary and wintergreen showed 100 % egg mortality. In this work, it can be concluded that camphor, eucalyptus, nutmeg, rosemary, wintergreen oils showed very good fumigant and ovicidal activity. However, the possibility of utilising these plant oils to control C. maculatus in storage conditions may warrant further investigation.

Post-release monitoring of transgenic Bt maize fields for resistant pest populations is an important activity that will contribute to early identification and mitigation of resistance evolution by target pests. An effective Bt maize pest resistance monitoring programme relies on well-established baseline susceptibility data. The target pest of Bt maize in South Africa, Busseola fusca (Fuller) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae), has evolved resistance to Bt maize expressing Cry1Ab proteins, with numerous reports of resistance from the highveld region of the country. Although Bt maize has been cultivated in the Eastern Cape province since 2001, no data exist on the resistance status of field populations of B. fusca to Bt maize in this region. In view of this, B. fusca larvae were collected from fields in two Bt maize cultivating areas and a non-Bt maize cultivating area of the Eastern Cape for laboratory assays to determine the level of susceptibility of B. fusca to Bt maize. Rearing colonies of each population were established and neonate larvae from each population were used to infest non-Bt maize plants, and Bt maize of events MON810 and MON89034. All larvae maintained on MON89034 died within seven days of infestation. Survival of all B. fusca populations maintained on MON810 declined rapidly during the first seven days and was significantly (P<0.001) lower than larval survival on non-Bt maize. Similarly, mass of surviving larvae of all populations on MON810 from the first two weeks to the 21st day was significantly (P < 0.001) lower than the mass of larvae on non-Bt maize. These results indicate that fieldcollected populations screened in this study are still susceptible to Bt maize.

Histology and morphology of the male reproductive system of Spilostethus pandurus is described using light and scanning electron microscopy. The male reproductive system consists of two testes, in which different stages of spermatogenesis are observed, two vasa efferentia, two seminal vesicles, two tubular vasa deferentia, two accessory glands (mesadenia), ejaculatory bulb and a single muscular ejaculatory duct which opens via the aedeagus. Knowledge of the basic reproductive morphology and histology can be used to infer function and provide key information for future research into reproductive behaviour, evolution and physiology in Hemiptera.

Daylight fluorescent pigment powders are frequently used to self-mark tephritid flies that are released in sterile insect technique programmes and for studies on their population ecology, movement and behaviour. This study was conducted to determine the effects of pigment colour and dose in marking the Oriental fruit fly, Bactrocera dorsalis (Hendel) (Diptera: Tephritidae). Six pigment colours (Astral Pink 1, Blaze 5, Stellar Green 8, Lunar Yellow 27, Comet Blue 60 and Invisible Blue 70) were applied to pupae at doses of 0, 2, 4, or 6 g/l. Under laboratory conditions, pigment colour had a small but significant effect on the number of partially emerged and deformed adults; the fewest of these were observed when flies were marked with Astral Pink 1. Pigment concentration, on the other hand, had no effect on adult emergence, partial emergence, deformed adults and mortality on the last day of eclosion. There was no significant effect of pigment colour on adult survival under laboratory and semi-field conditions. Under laboratory conditions, however, there was an effect of pigment concentration on adult survival depending on pigment colour. Visibility under an ultraviolet light and persistence of marks was significantly affected by pigment colour and concentration when observed under laboratory conditions, but not under semi-field conditions. Regardless of colour or dose, pigments used in the study were visible for at least 14 days, but began to fade by 21 days after adult eclosion. To mark B. dorsalis under temperate, warmsummer African conditions, all pigment colours tested in this study may be applied at 2–4 g/l pupae. Recaptures of marked and released flies may be underestimated as the flies age.