A review of the three known species of Pegylis occurring in South Africa is provided, including a dichotomous key, illustrations of diagnostic features, distribution maps and notes on natural history. Lectotypes are designated for Hypopholis sommeri Burmeister, 1855, and Pegylis pondoensis Arrow, 1943. Pegylis vittata atrata Machatschke, 1955 syn. nov. is regarded here as conspecific with Pegylis vittata.

Habitat fragmentation and habitat quality interact synergistically and can drastically affect survival and fitness of insect herbivores. Here, we perform a case study to assess the effect of habitat quality and fragmentation on the morphology of a large, mobile, generalist insect herbivore, the bird locust, Ornithacris cyanea (Orthoptera: Acrididae). Four isolated, semi-natural grassland fragments within an exotic timber plantation matrix were ranked in terms of their habitat quality on the basis of vegetation surveys, management actions, and habitat context surrounding the fragments. Mark-release-recapture was used to estimate bird locust population size. Bird locusts from each fragment were measured for nine morphological characters: four length characters and five asymmetry and phenodeviation characters expected to be indicative of developmental instability. The highest density of individuals was found in an intermediate-quality fragment. Individuals from the poorest quality fragment had significantly shorter hind femurs than those from the best-quality fragment. Females from the poorest quality fragment also had significantly shorter forewings and more forewing pattern phenodeviation than females from other fragments. Morphological differences among the four populations indicated that they were distinct and that the population at the poorest quality site displayed adaptation for reduced mobility and increased developmental instability. Although we cannot determine whether populations were distinct due to inherent preferences of the species or as a result of reduced movement because of the inhospitable matrix, the correlation of morphological differences with habitat quality indicates that even highly mobile, generalist species can undergo rapid adaptations within isolated fragments and in response to varying habitat quality.

Phylogenetic analysis using six outgroup and 26 ingroup taxa and 18 external adult morphological characters resulted in a paraphyletic Pegylina as composed by Lacroix (1989). To maintain the Pegylina as a monophyletic subtribe, the genus Stenopegylis Arrow, 1943 is removed from the Pegylina and placed in the Melolonthini sensu lato, pending further cladistic analyses of the Afrotropical melolonthines. Following the analyses presented here, eight character areas (antennomere number, labrum form, protarsal claw shape, protibial spur, pronotum, mesosternum and mesosternal process, body shape and sexual dimorphism) are discussed with reference to differentiating Hypopholis Erichson, 1847 syn. nov. from Pegylis Erichson, 1847. Consequently, the former is synonymized with the latter, resulting in the following new combinations: Pegylis sommeri (Burmeister, 1855) comb. nov.; P. uelensis (Burgeon, 1946) comb. nov. and P. vittata (Fåhraeus in Boheman, 1857) comb. nov. An appended checklist for the subtribe Pegylina as presently composed includes 37 species in two genera, Eupegylis Duvivier, 1892 (1 sp.) and Pegylis Erichson, 1847 (36 spp.). During outgroup selection for this analysis it became aparent that the monotypic Wernerophylla nigra Lacroix, 2001 syn. nov. is conspecific with Stenopegylis cylindrica Arrow, 1943 and consequently this synonymy is implemented here.

The responses of Afrotropical galling insects to habitat fragmentation are poorly understood. We studied the influence of fragmentation and fragment characteristics on communities of galling insects on Neoboutonia macrocalyx trees, in six forest fragments around Kibale National Park, Uganda. Insect galls were collected from six randomly cut tips of branches from each of 10 randomly selected trees in every forest five times over a 10-month period.Atotal of 6090 individuals representing five galler species were recorded. The species richness, density and community composition of gallers were significantly different among the forests. Continuous forest areas showed similar community characteristics but some fragments were similar to continuous forests and others differed from them. None of the fragment characteristics measured (size, host-tree density, distance from continuous forest boundary and from nearest neighbour) explained differences in community measures (species richness and density) of gallers. Our results indicate that habitat fragmentation can lead to a decline in the galler species richness and to changes in the density and composition of galling insects, emphasizing the need to maintain large continuous forested areas as a long-termstrategy for their conservation. However, the similarity of community measures of gallers of some fragments and continuous forests suggest that the preservation of fragments might provide an important complement to the conservation of galling insects, highlighting the need to include also these habitats in management and conservation priorities. However, our study did not identify habitat characteristics to predict which fragments have a high value for gallers, indicating that processes that produced high-value fragments might have been stochastic. Our results caution against making generalizations on the use of easily measureable fragment characteristics (e.g. size and distance of isolation) when designing and planning conservation areas.

Botanical insecticides are considered to be the best alternative to synthetic chemical insecticides because they pose little threat to the environment or to human health. This study is the first report on the effect of jujube (Zizyphus jujuba) plant extracts against larvae of Culex pipiens mosquitoes. The study was designed to evaluate the larvicidal potency of jujube plant oil, dry ground leaves, and organic extracts of leaves using different solvents against third instar larvae. The ingredients of jujube were extracted by two ways: by grinding fresh leaves immediately in solvents or by soaking dry ground leaves powder in solvents for 72 h. The results showed that larvae were highly susceptible to jujube oil, plant extracts and crude plant powder. The best results were obtained with jujube oil, followed by the dry leaf extract in petroleum ether, and finally the crude plant powder. Histological and ultrastructural studies on jujube oil-treated larvae revealed that gut, muscles and cuticle layers were severely damaged, which indicates the toxic effect of jujube oil. In conclusion, the jujube plant oil and organic extracts are promising agents for controlling Cx. pipiens larvae.

A total of 778 individuals of 150 bird species were examined: 123 (16 %) individuals of 40 non-passerine bird species belonging to 16 orders; and 655 (84 %) individuals of 110 passerine bird species (Passeriformes) belonging to 28 families. A total of 2041 chewing lice belonging to nine genera were found on passerine birds. Amblyceran lice were less frequent than ischnoceran lice (32.8 % vs 67.2 %, n = 2041). A total of 670 amblyceran lice (mean intensity = 5.0) were found on 133 passerine birds (20.3 %) of 43 species. The dominant amblyceran genus was Menacanthus with a dominance of 59.3 %, while the other two genera were less frequent: Myrsidea (36.9 %) and Ricinus (3.9 % ). A total of 50 amblyceran louse-host associations were recorded. An equal overall sex ratio as well as age ratio was found among the collected lice. An updated checklist of the species of amblyceran lice from passerine birds from South Africa is included and discussed. Two families, five genera and 32 species of lice are listed from 42 passerine bird hosts.

The ant Pachycondyla sennaarensis (Mayr) (Hymenoptera: Formicidae: Ponerinae) is a small dark ant, a recent accidental introduction into Saudi Arabia. It tends to be found in or near human habitations, and it is particularly unpleasant because its sting can cause severe reaction in some individuals, and there are reports of fatal effects. Analysis of the poison apparatus of P. sennaarensis, locally known as the samsum ant, and comparison with two other native small black ants, Messor meridionalis and M. foreli (Hymenoptera: Formicidae), have shown distinct differences in the materials in their Dufour glands and clearly distinguish P. sennaarensis from the two Messor species. Pachycondyla sennaarensis showed only hydrocarbons in its Dufour gland dominated by nonadecene, nonadecane and heneicosane. The powerful venom revealed no volatile compounds. The Dufour glands of M. meridionale and M. foreli had characteristic mixtures of hydrocarbons, but no venom gland volatile compounds. Pentadecane and hepadecane were the major compounds of the gland in M. meridionalis while nonadecane and heneicosane were the major in M. foreli.

Volatile compounds present in essential plant oils are known to influence insect behaviour. They are generally of low molecular weight, highly volatile, have a unique mode of action and are sometimes of low toxicity to non-target organisms. One example of a volatile compound extracted from a plant is methyl salicylate which is being used to reduce aphid infestation on barley in some European countries. The use of such volatile compounds was therefore considered as an alternate control option to be included in the control programme of Diuraphis noxia (Kurd.) after plant resistance-breaking biotypes started to develop in South Africa. The aim of this study was to test the response of alate D. noxia to plant extracts from four plant species in a four-arm olfactometer. Aqueous and light mineral oil extracts of Artemisia afra (Jacq.), Datura stramonium (L.), Tagetes minuta (L.) and Tulbaghia violacea (Harv.), which grow naturally in some dryland wheat production regions of South Africa, were tested. These plants were chosen based on possible insect repelling properties known to occur in other species of the same genera. Aphids were strongly repelled by the oil extract of T. violacea and the aqueous extract of A. afra. The oil extract of A. afra, both T. minuta extracts and T. violacea aqueous extract were less repellent but still elicited an exceptional repelling response. Aphids were not repelled by D. stramonium extracts. The effectiveness of these basic extracts in repelling D. noxia should, however, be tested under field conditions before they can be recommended as a control option.

Pilophoneus analogos sp. n. is described from Zambia (Kafue National Park) and compared to the only other known species, P. krugeri (Oldroyd, 1974), from South Africa. A key is provided for the separation of these species while the distribution of the genus is briefly discussed.

Electracma minyops sp. n. (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae: Chidanotini) is described and illustrated from South Africa. The larvae form galls on white milkwood (Sideroxylon inerme L., Sapotaceae). The galls, situated about 3 to 5 cm from the tip of young shoots, cause the tips to wilt and die. About 50 % of the observed galls are also inhabited by larvae of Cecidomyidae (Diptera). Larvae of E. minyops were found in galls from July to November, whereas larvae of cecidomyids were present from August to November. Adults of the tortricid were relatively abundant from April to July.

In this study we compared the efficiency of two Trichogramma (Hymenoptera: Trichogrammatidae) species, the indigenous T. euproctidis Girault and the cosmopolitan T. achaeae Nagaraja & Nagarkatti, for the biological control of the tomato leaf miner, Tuta absoluta (Meyrick) (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae). Three release doses (25, 50 and 75 parasitoids/m²) for each species were tested in a two-year experiment (growing seasons: 2011/2012 and 2012/2013), in protected tomato cultivations in Egypt. The results show that both Trichogramma species were significantly efficient, especially at higher doses, in keeping down T. absoluta mines during both experimentation years. Although no significant differences were found between the efficiency of the two species, the inclusion into Egyptian integrated and biological T. absoluta management programmes of the autochthonous species, T. euproctidis, might be preferred for its adaptation to Egyptian environmental conditions and for its expected lower non-target effect on the local fauna.

Sugarcane cultivar resistance to Eldana saccharina is the best strategy to control the stalk borer. The present study aimed to establish the influence of stalk rind hardness, fibre and nitrogen content, and the effect Fusarium species associated with E. saccharina infestation, on borer damage and performance in different sugarcane cultivars. In two glasshouse trials, larvae were inoculated into 7-month-old stalks of seven cultivars with different E. saccharina resistance ratings via wounds created in the rind. In one of the trials, E. saccharina-beneficial fungal strain Fusarium pseudonygamai SC17 and E. saccharina antagonistic F. sacchari PNG40 were inoculated into the stalk of N41 and NCo376 three weeks before larval inoculation. Rind hardness and fibre content were higher in resistant cultivars and mature stalk parts, whilst nitrogen content was lower in these genotypes and in older tissues. However, E. saccharina survival, damage and growth indicators were not entirely consistent with known resistance ratings of cultivars, possibly due to the absence of the rind effect owing to mechanical wounding and differential effects of fibre and nitrogen in the cultivars. The absence of rind protection did not affect resistance in N29 and N33 upper internodes. Fusarium infection was higher in the bottom of the stalk compared to the top in both N41 and NCo376. The least length bored was exhibited in the bottom internodes of NCo376 (3.3 cm) and N41 (1.7 cm) infected with PNG40, whilst SC17-colonized NCo376 stalks experienced the most damage (8.2 cm). The contribution of stalk rind hardness, fibre and nitrogen content to E. saccharina resistance in sugarcanemayvary in different cultivars and stalk parts, whilst biochemical defences possibly play a larger role in some genotypes. Infection by Fusarium species, especially in lower internodes,mayhave variable effects on resistance to the borer depending on the fungal strain present.

The mango aphid, Aphis odinae (Toxoptera odinae) (Van der Goot) (Hemiptera: Aphididae), is an occasional, phytophagous sucking pest of mango. These aphids are very often associated with natural enemies and an ecological understanding, especially on insect—crop relationships, is needed in management. This will be manifested in altered sugar and amino acids contents of the plant. In light of this, the effect of aphid feeding on the content of total soluble sugars (TSS) and free amino acids (FAA) in mango shoots was studied. The amount of TSS and FAA in infested and uninfested shoots with varying levels of aphid infestation, namely low, medium and high, were quantified. Results indicated a significant reduction in the amount of TSS and FAA in infested shoots due to aphid feeding (P < 0.05). At maximal aphid abundance (251–300 aphids/shoot), TSS declined by 32 % and FAA by 47.5 %. Further, regression analysis between aphid numbers and the quantity of TSS/FAA yielded simple linear equations with R² = 0.99, which can be used as an alternative way to estimate aphids numbers. The present study discusses the influence of aphid herbivory in mango shoots, a critical factor in understanding aphid–plant interactions and their damage to the host. It can be possibly extended to similar other aphid infestations.

The tachinid larval parasitoid Sturmiopsis parasitica (Curran) has a wide distribution in eastern, southern and West Africa where it attacks several species of cereal stemborers. Its development on Busseola fusca Fuller (four populations), Chilo partellus (Swinhoe) and Sesamia calamistis Hampson was evaluated in Zimbabwe in the laboratory. The parasitoid's larviposition patterns and ways to induce its early emergence from diapausing host larvae inside which it overwinters were also studied. Irrespective of the inoculation method used, the four B. fusca populations were equally suitable for parasitoid development. Chilo partellus was a partially suitable host while S. calamistis was completely unsuitable. Mated female parasitoids commenced larviposition at eight days after mating, with a peak being attained on day 15. Placing field-collected diapausing B. fusca larvae in fresh maize stems or in moistened dry stems could bring forward the emergence of S. parasitica from diapausing hosts. The implications of the current findings on the suitability of S. parasitica as a redistribution candidate in Africa are discussed.

Larvicidal activity and cytotoxicity of fruit and leaf extracts of the Capparis cartilaginea were evaluated. No previous studies have been reported on the larvicidal activities of crude and column chromatographic fractions of fruit and leaf extracts of Capparis cartilaginea. In this study, HPLC analysis of the alkaloidal active fraction F2 of methanolic fruit extract showed the presence of a major peak. Crude aqueous fruit extract of C. cartilaginea was less toxic against Aedes caspius (LC₅₀ = 172.02) compared to its column chromatographic fraction F2 (LC₅₀ = 29.17). Cytotoxicity studies on HepG2 and MCF7 at 24 h post-treatment recorded survival rates ranging from 90 to 110 %, respectively. Light and fluorescent microscopy revealed no effect on cell morphology at 100 µg/ml. The plasma membrane remained well defined and the nuclei were normal and exhibited diffused staining of the chromatin. Most active component(s) responsible for toxic activity against Aedes caspius was present in the fraction F2 of C. cartilaginea, which showed larvicidal efficacy in a dose-dependent manner. As a result, fraction F2 is a good candidate as an alternative natural larvicidal agent with no hepatotoxicity and ata low cost. Further investigation is required to identify and characterize active compounds.

The complete mitochondrial genome of global Diuraphis noxia populations was characterized using NextGen sequencing, and was found to be 15 721 bp in size and consisting of 38 genes typically found within most insects. Single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) analyses of the genomes of nine populations revealed 125 SNPs in the protein coding genes with the majority of the SNPs occurring in the ND genes, and the least in the ND4L gene. Low SNP variant frequency was also found for the atp6 and atp8 genes, which differed from other reports in the Hemiptera, and may point towards increased importance of these genes in aphid fitness.

The mechanisms of cold tolerance in insects which are exposed to suboptimal temperatures for survival include accumulation of cryoprotectants and expression of heat shock protein genes (hsps). Spodoptera exigua is a freeze avoidance insect, which can overwinter as third instar larvae in China. Our previous study illustrated that seasonal and diel fluctuating temperatures enhanced its cold hardening. The survival mechanism for this stage, however, is poorly understood. We hypothesized that the survival mechanisms in third instar larvae of S. exigua were correlated with the induction of cryoprotectants and/or expression of hsps. Results showed that trehalose as the main cryoprotectant was accumulated during the cold acclimation (CA), and the level of accumulation fell off sharply when the CA treatment was discontinued (discontinued cold acclimation, DCA). Furthermore, inducible hsp90 was down-regulated in all treatments compared with the control, and hsp70 was up-regulated under conditions of CA and RCH (rapid cold hardening), which induced 1.23- and 44.00-fold increases compared with the control. Therefore, we considered that both trehalose (as the main cryoprotectant) and hsps (i.e. hsp90 and hsp70) were involved in the regulation of physiological activity of third instar larvae of S. exigua to resist low temperatures during winter. These results are helpful for us to understand the mechanisms underlying this species' ecological adaptability and stress tolerance.

The Neotropical tree Leucaena leucocephala (Lam.) de Wit (Fabaceae), which was introduced worldwide for agroforestry, has become invasive in several countries. In an attempt to reduce its invasiveness in South Africa, the seed-feeding beetle Acanthoscelides macrophthalmus (Schaeffer) (Chrysomelidae: Bruchinae) was released in 1999 as a biological control agent. The beetle oviposits on seed pods and on loose seeds of its host. Hatching larvae burrow into the seeds to consume the contents, emerging as adults. Since L. leucocephala seeds and seed pods display considerable variation in size (i.e. resource quality) in the field, a laboratory study was conducted to determine whether size affects utilization by A. macrophthalmus. A seed-switching trial was also carried out to determine whether seed pod or seed size was the most consistent oviposition cue. The beetles displayed strong oviposition preferences for larger resources, with significantly higher egg loads on the largest seeds and seed pods. The seed-switching trials suggested that seed pod size was a more important oviposition cue than seed size. These results were verified by field surveys which revealed significant positive relationships between egg loads and seed pod size at two of the three sites surveyed. Since seed size is positively correlated with germination success and seedling fitness in leguminous plants, these oviposition patterns suggest that, in situations where dehisced seeds are utilized, A. macrophthalmus may be targeting the fittest seeds in L. leucocephala populations. This may have positive, albeit subtle, implications for biological control.

Homotoma eastopi Hollis & Broomfield 1989, previously described from Bamenda (Northwest Region, Cameroon) with unknown immatures and host plants is presently reported from Yaounde (Centre Region, Cameroon), on several species of the genus Ficus on which adults and immatures feed. The last instar immature is described and illustrated; taxonomically relevant morphological details of the adults are illustrated, especially on the head, and male and female terminalia. The host plant range and information on its biology are also given.