Entomopathogenic nematodes (EPNs) have been identified as being promising biological control agents of key insect pests. The two EPN genera that have shown potential for use as biological control agents within an integrated pest management programme are Steinernema and Heterorhabditis. Large numbers of EPNs can be produced through either in vivo or in vitro culturing practices. Commercialization and the successful use of EPNs to control pests in North America, Australia, Europe and Asia have confirmed the effectiveness of these organisms as biological control agents. Two endemic EPN isolates to South Africa, Heterorhabditis zealandica (SF41) and H. bacteriophora (SF351) have been shown to be effective control agents of codling moth, Cydia pomonella, false codling moth, Thaumatotibia leucotreta, obscure mealybug, Pseudococcus viburni, and the banded fruit weevil, Phlyctinus callosus. Unfortunately, EPNs in large enough numbers for commercial field applications are not yet available on the South African market.

Anagyrus spp. are well-known primary parasitoids of Pseudococcidae employed in augmentative release programmes. Anagyrus sp. nr. pseudococci was found to be the dominant Anagyrus sp. present in vineyards around the Stellenbosch area, during scouting in 2006 and 2007. Given the lack of sufficient life table data on this species, a life table study was conducted at constant temperatures, 11, 17, 22, 27, 30, 32 and 34 °C, at a humidity of approximately 53 % and daylight regime of 16L:8D. The maximum values for the intrinsic rates of increase and net reproduction rate were 4.305 and 152.7, respectively, and were obtained at 27 °C. The lower temperature threshold (T₀), upper lethal limit (T_L) and optimum temperature threshold (T_opt), were estimated at 16.32 °C, 35.66 °C and 30.75 °C, respectively. Given these developmental parameters, A. sp. nr. pseudococci is well adapted to outperform its host, Planococcus ficus, at higher temperatures.

Scale insects (Sternorrhyncha: Coccoidea) are one of the most invasive groups of insects. They are sedentary, cryptic, and often resemble the plant parts that they feed on. This coupled with increased international trade in fresh agricultural produce, makes them a major quarantine risk. An important limitation in controlling these pests involves species identification. When scale insects are intercepted on imported produce, they must be rapidly and accurately identified, using morphology-based keys. This is time-consuming and requires extensive taxonomic experience. In addition, intercepted specimens are often immature or damaged, making identification difficult or impossible. A reliable complementary tool is needed for identification. DNA barcoding may be of great value for this purpose. In this study we investigate the suitability of the nuclear regions 18S and 28S as complementary DNA barcodes to the mitochondrial CO1 gene, across 10 scale insect families. Combining multiple criteria, our results indicate that the concatenation of CO1 and 28S greatly improves the identification success rate of scale insects to 91.5 %, demonstrating the utility of DNA barcoding in pest management.

The spiralling whitefly, Aleurodicus dispersus Russell, is a tropical pest that attacks a variety of horticultural crops and ornamental plants. Seven host plants were chosen to analyse the preference of A. dispersus. Our results showed that Pterocarpus indicus (a key host) significantly attracted A. dispersus. To find attractants that could be used to control A. dispersus either by mass trapping or by monitoring as part of integrated pest management, the essential oils of seven host plants were analysed by gas chromatography coupled with electroantennographic detection (GC-EAD), and the oil of P. indicus was analysed by gas chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry (GC-MS). The results revealed that (±)-2-hexanol from the essential oil of P. indicus leaves elicited a strong response from the female A. dispersus antennae. Moreover, female A. dispersus was attracted to different concentrations of (±)-2-hexanol in a Y-tube olfactometer. Whether (±)-2-hexanol and the behavioural responses described here can be exploited as ecological control tools for A. dispersus is discussed.

Okra germplasm collected from different locations around the world were screened at AVRDC(The World Vegetable Center) in 2011 and 2012 to identify germplasm resistant to the melon aphid (Aphis gossypii) for use in sub-Saharan Africa. A total of 260 okra accessions and varieties were screened (150 at AVRDC Taiwan and 110 at AVRDC Cameroon), which included four varieties commercially available in Cameroon. The experiments were conducted under natural infestation in Shanhua, Taiwan, and at Yaoundé, Cameroon. Since the preliminary screening trials were conducted in Taiwan and Cameroon, the aphid populations in these two countries were compared. A total of 60 insects was used for cytochrome c oxidase I (COI) gene sequencing and phylogenetic analysis. The nucleotide sequences of all the populations showed 100 % similarity and the phylogenetic analysis confirmed the genetic similarity of A. gossypii in Taiwan and Cameroon. Results of the screening trials showed that three accessions (VI033805, VI036213 and VI051114) were resistant to A. gossypii. The basis of resistance of the three okra accessions was elucidated by studying their biochemical and biophysical properties. There was no significant difference between the susceptible and resistant okra accessions in terms of leaf tannins, free amino acids, total sugars and total phenols. Only total nitrogen was significantly different between the susceptible and the two resistant okra accessions with the lowest aphid infestation (VI033805 and VI036213). Thus, higher leaf nitrogen content seems to favour the aphid infestation on okra. For physical parameters, there was no significant difference among the accessions in trichome density of bottom and middle leaves, and leaf toughness. However, trichome density in the younger leaves of resistant VI033805 was significantly higher than susceptible VI057245. Studies on settling behaviour showed that aphids did not discriminate between the susceptible and resistant okra accessions for oviposition and feeding 72 h after release.

The biocontrol potential of the pteromalid cosmopolitan ectoparasitoid Dinarmus basalis Rondani was investigated on pulse beetle Callosobruchus chinensis (L.), a major pest of stored chickpea. The parasitoid could easily recognize and parasitize the late and larger immature stages of hosts. The order of preference was fourth instar larva<pre-pupa<third instar larva < pupa. However, the parasitoid did not parasitize first and second instar host larva. The parasitism and suppressive efficiency of the parasitoid was consequently changed with the change of the density of the parasitoid. The percentage parasitism were 88.46 ± 0.64 and 99.25 ± 0.26 at 25 pairs of introduced parasitoids while 62.83 ± 1.35 and 77.05 ± 0.98 at 5 pairs during June—July and August—September, respectively. The suppression by the parasitoid over the hosts was 74.11 ± 0.72 and 82.86 ± 0.76 % at 5 pairs whereas 92.37 ± 0.32 and 99.21 ± 0.12 % at 25 pairs introduced in June—July and August—September, respectively.

Two species of dragonflies, Pyrrhosoma nymphula and Aeshna cyanea, whose presence in Tunisia was unknown, have recently been recorded in Khroumirian streams, in the northwest of the country. A new population of Onychogomphus uncatus , a relatively rare species in North Africa (except Morocco), is also reported. Characteristics of their habitat are given.

Species of Chrysomya Robineau-Desvoidy are important in disease transmission and can be used as forensic indicators. An identification key is presented here for adults of the genus Chrysomya from the Afrotropical Region. Notes on the distribution and biology of the 12 species are also given.

Material of the genus Ifnidius Escalera, 1940 (Coleoptera: Malachiidae) was collected from the islands Fuerteventura and Gran Canaria between 1996 and 2005. A further study has shown that these specimens belong to two new species, easily differentiable from I. petricola Plata, 1987, the only species of the genus known so far in the Canaries. The type specimens of most species of Ifnidius have been examined. Figures and an identification key to all species of the genus are provided, accompanied by comparative notes and some biological data on the Canarian species.

The cycad blue, Chilades pandava, is recorded from Egypt for the first time. According to molecular analysis, the species appears to have originated from South China or Northern Indochina, and was probably introduced with ornamental Cycas plants.

Fruit flies are major economic pests that hinder the increased production and commercialization of fruits and vegetables in Swaziland. However, the diversity and abundance of these nagging pests in the country have not been documented. This underscores the importance of inventorying the fruit fly species in the country as a prelude to formulating a sustainable management strategy of these pests.Asurvey was therefore conducted to detect, collect and identify the various fruit fly species in fruited feral marula and guava using three baits, i.e. vinegar, brewers' waste and commercial fruit fly bait at Ntondozi and Gebeni. Sites were sampled weekly from January to May 2012 when the target plants grew in abundance. Overall, a total of 4168 fruit flies (23 species) were trapped. There were significant differences in the number of flies collected between sites (P = 0.0002). Fewer flies were trapped from Gebeni (1569; 22 species), compared to Ntondozi (2599; 18 species). Ceratitis rosa was the dominant species at both sites and host plants, making up 68.8 % of the overall catch, followed by C. cosyra. Of the dacines, Dacus bivittatus was the dominant species. At Gebeni, there were no significant differences in the number of flies trapped between baits (P=0.1231) while significant differences were observed at Ntondozi (P=0.0009), where the traps with commercial bait had the highest number of fruit flies followed by the brewers' waste and then the vinegar-baited traps. Traps placed on marula trees had a significantly lower number of fruit flies and diversity (1095 fruit flies, 11 species) compared to those placed in guava trees (3073 fruit flies, 22 species) (P=0.000). Host-plant surveys indicated that only C. cosyra emerged from marula fruits while co-occurrence of C. rosa, C. capitata and C. cosyra was observed in guava fruits. The results of this study could formthe basis for the development of a low-cost integrated management package for the suppression of fruit fly populations in Swaziland.

The susceptibility of different stages of the potato tuber moth, Phthorimaea operculella, to different modified atmospheres containing various concentrations of ozone was studied as an alternative to methyl bromide fumigation. The ozone concentrations used against larvae and adults were 5, 10, 20 40, 60 and 80 ppm at different exposure times. For the eggs and pupae, a range of 1 to 5 ppm of ozone was used. Results showed that 5 ppm was adequate to kill all eggs and pupae of the moth. The exposure time needed to achieve a 100%mortality of eggs and pupae was 1 h, whereas exposure at 80 ppm for 1 h caused 80 and 84%mortality of larvae and adults of P. operculella, respectively. The order of sensitivity of P. operculella to ozone was: eggs > pupa > adults and larva. In conclusion, the eggs and pupae of potato tuber moth were more sensitive to modified atmosphere than larvae and adults. The results showthat ozone could be an effective alternative to control potato tuber moth in the storage.

The toxicity of the non-steroidal ecdysteroid agonist tebufenozide was evaluated topically on adults of the cosmopolitan cockroach Blattella germanica (Blattodea: Blattellidae). The LD₅₀ value was estimated at 402 μg/g of insect (range, 95% fiducial limits: 293–552) at 15 days after treatment. The effects on reproduction were observed in adult females of cockroaches that survived exposure to a LD₂₅ (146 μg/g of insect) of tebufenozide. Dissection of treated females showed a clear reduction in both the number of oocytes per paired ovaries and the size of basal oocytes, as compared to controls. In addition, tebufenozide significantly reduced the mating success of pairs and altered the fertility as shown through the reduction of ootheca development and total absence of viable nymphs. Tebufenozide disrupted the Germancockroach reproduction by interferring with the homeostasis of the insect hormones.

We present host records for the following Afrotropical Tortricidae reared from fruit in Kenya : Idiothauma nr africanum Walsingham, Paraccra mimesa Razowski, Apotoforma nr uncifera Razowski, Eugnosta percnoptila (Meyrick), Phtheochroa aarviki Razowski & Brown, Actihema hemiacta (Meyrick), Choristoneura dinota (Meyrick), Choristoneura occidentalis (Walsingham), Procrica nr ophiograpta (Meyrick), Metamesia nr episema (Diakonoff), Epichoristodes acerbella (Walker), Cryptaspasma phycitinana Aarvik, Cryptaspasma subtilis Diakonoff complex, Cryptaspasma caryothia (Meyrick) complex, Cryptaspasma n. sp., Lobesia vanillana (Joannis), Lobesia semosa Diakonoff, Eccopsis nebulana Walsingham, Eccopsis praecedens Walsingham, Afrothreutes madoffei Aarvik, Afroploce nr karsholti Aarvik, Metendothenia balanacma (Meyrick), Endothenia ator Razowski & Brown, Anthozela chrysoxantha Meyrick, Anthozela psychotriae Razowski & Brown, Concinocordis wilsonarum Razowski & Brown, Crocidosema plebejana Zeller, Crocidosema lantana (Busck), Gypsonoma scolopiae Razowski & Brown, Cosmetra nereidopa (Meyrick), Cosmetra sp. 1, Cosmetra sp. 2, Cosmetra sp. 3, Cosmetra podocarpivora Razowski & Brown, Cosmetra taitana Razowski & Brown, Thaumatotibia leucotreta (Meyrick), Thaumatotibia batrachopa (Meyrick), Thaumatotibia salaciae Razowski & Brown, Cryptophlebia semilunana (Saalmüller), Cryptophlebia sp. 1, Cryptophlebia peltastica (Meyrick), Cydia connara Razowski & Brown, Cydia sennae Razowski & Brown, Cydia nr choleropa (Meyrick), Fulcrifera crotalariae Razowski & Brown, Fulcrifera nr periculosa (Meyrick), Fulcrifera sp. 1, Fulcrifera sp. 2, Dracontogena continentalis Karisch, Dracontogena solii Aarvik & Karisch, Grapholita limbata Diakonoff, Grapholita mesosocia (Meyrick), Grapholita nr mesosocia (Meyrick), Selania exornata (Diakonoff), Eucosmocydia monitrix (Meyrick), Stenentoma sorindeiae Razowski & Brown, and Thylacogaster garcinivora Razowski & Brown. Nearly 75 % of all our reared tortricids are members of Grapholitini, a tribe that includes numerous pests of fruit worldwide. Approximately 77 % of the reared species are recorded from only one or two different plants species (frequently in the same plant genus). Plant families that support the greatest numbers of tortricid fruit-feeders are Rubiaceae (13 tortricid species), Ochnaceae (11 tortricid species), Sapindaceae (10 tortricid species), Rosaceae (8 tortricid species), Connaraceae (7 tortricid species) and Fabaceae (7 tortricid species). We also review previously reported food plants and provide a few new records for four foliage- and/or fruit-feeding tortricids from the Afrotopical Region, e.g. Goniotorna erratica (Diakonoff), Taiteccopsis taitana Razowski, Cydia choleropa (Meyrick) and Leguminivora ptychora (Meyrick). Identifications are based on morphology and DNA barcodes (COI).

The genus Millenarius Londt, 2005, previously known only by a single species from KwaZulu-Natal Province of South Africa, is revised. Two new species are described — M. annae sp. n., from the Bongolo Dam Reserve near Queenstown, Eastern Cape Province, South Africa, and M. woodi, widely distributed in northern KwaZulu-Natal and Swaziland. Neolophonotus dichaetus Hull, 1967, a species known mainly from the Eastern Cape Province and the southern parts of KwaZulu-Natal, is transferred to the genus. New records for both the genotype, M. graminosus Londt, 2005 and M. dichaetus (Hull, 1967) are provided along with a key for the separation of the four known species. Aspects of the biology of the group are summarized.

Agroforestry systems may represent refugia for native fauna in highly disturbed environments. In the context of ongoing intensive destruction of tropical rainforest by agricultural activities, there is a wealth of information on the influence of agricultural practices on arthropod diversity on southern Cameroon cocoa farms. The present study examined the diversity and the composition of ant communities on traditional cocoa farms in relation to agricultural practices along a south—north latitudinal gradient in the Centre Region of Cameroon. Ants were sampled in 21 plots using the chemical knock-down technique, along a latitudinal gradient from Ngomedzap (forest) in the south through Obala (forest-savanna) to Bokito (savanna) in the north. Species richness, Shannon diversity index and Bray-Curtis distance were used to characterize diversity of ant communities and their dissimilarity between habitats. A total of 66 ant species, belonging to 24 genera and seven subfamilies were identified from a sample of 114 843 workers. The ant diversity of Obala is higher than that of Ngomedzap and Bokito. Estimation of Bray-Curtis distances demonstrated that the ant communities of Ngomedzap and Obala were similar to each other, but very different from that of Bokito. The ant communities of Centre Cameroonian cocoa farms appeared relatively diversified. These communities varied in species composition and diversity in relation to agricultural practices along south—north latitudinal gradients.

Three different inoculation treatments were compared, using Galleria mellonella Linnaeus (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) and Tenebrio molitor Linnaeus (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae) as hosts, and Heterorhabditis bacteriophora Poinar and H. zealandica Poinar as inoculum. The highest percentage infection of insect hosts was achieved by pipetting nematodes onto hosts, followed by immersion of hosts into nematode suspensions, and, lastly, by shaking hosts together with nematode inoculum. Mealworm larvae were exposed to 70 °C tap water in an attempt to compromise their defence mechanisms prior to inoculation. Infection levels of 12 % for H. bacteriophora and 21 % for H. zealandica obtained were lower than that of the control. Pre-inoculation treatment of infective juveniles with Mn² SO₄.H₂O also did not significantly increase infection rates. Mealworm infection was 81 % for treated H. zealandica in comparison to 80 % for the control. Using treated H. bacteriophora, infection levels of mealworms were 47 %, compared to the control at 48 %. Host and nematode stress or methods tested did not lead to an improvement in infection levels, contrary to previous findings in literature.

The essential oils extracted from six plants from Kabylia (Algeria), namely Eucalyptus globulus, Eucalyptus radiata, Myrtus communis, Salvia officinalis, Laurus nobilis and Pistacia lentiscus, were analysed by gas chromatography (GC/MS). Their biological activity was assessed on a pest destructive of stored products, Callosobruchus maculatus on cowpea (Vigna unguicultata). The results showed that these oils have two monoterpene compounds in common: α-pinene and β-pinene in different proportions. The bio-tests were conducted through contact, fumigation and repellency, under laboratory conditions. All the oils tested proved to be active, and the most significant action was the inhibition of oviposition during the tests through contact at a dose of 12µ1/50 g of bean seed. The essential oil of E. globulus caused 50% mortality in adult C. maculatus at 24 hours at a dose of 4µl/1 of air in fumigation tests. In addition, the essential oils tested were highly repellent towards adult C. maculatus at a dose of 16 µl.

Alate aphids respond to short (UV) and long (green—yellow) wavelength stimuli during host-plant searching behaviour. Although many aphids are attracted to yellow, the bird cherry-oat aphid, Rhopalosiphum padi, is attracted to green. As part of identifying suitable plant species for crop border plants for seed potatoes, the attraction of R. padi to different shades of green in relation to differences in spectral reflectance of three cultivars of a non-host, potato, and two host-plant species, maize and wheat, were determined. Choice experiments were carried out under laboratory conditions to evaluate aphid landing preference for stimuli of different colours. Rhopalosiphum padi alates preferred to land on the colour targets with the highest reflectance. Significantly more alates landed on yellow and lime colour targets with a maximum wavelength reflectance of 46 % from 600–610 nm and 26 % from 525–531 nm, respectively. The peak light reflectance of the crop plants ranged between 12 % (potato; 532–555 nm) and 20 % (wheat; 537–553 nm). The results on aphid landing preference for different colour targets suggest that R. padi will land in higher numbers on the wheat plants, compared to potato, due to their higher peak percentage reflectance. In addition, the study indicates that the wavelength reflectance curves of plants can be used as a characteristic to select possible crop border plants when making choices between seemingly equally suitable plant species/cultivars.