Streptopogon brasiliensis (Pottiaceae, Bryophyta) is validated as a new species; it is the third species recognized for Brazil. This species is known only from southeastern and southernmost Brazil. A key and a synopsis of the Brazilian species of Streptopogon are provided.

A systematic revision of the six nominal species of the Neotropical genus Manekia (Piperaceae) was completed after evaluation of morphological and molecular data. Phylogenetic analyses using four molecular markers [rpl32-trnL_UAG spacer, psbj-petA intergenic intron regions 1 and 2, and internal transcribed spacer (ITS)] provided little resolution among species, perhaps indicating recent evolutionary divergence. Canonical discriminant analyses using morphological data recovered three separate groups, here recognized as distinct species: Manekia incurva, Manekia obtusa, and Manekia urbanii. Significant discriminating characteristics included petiole vagination, number of primary veins, leaf apex shape, leaf base shape, presence of pellucid dots, and bract ciliation.

Until now, Album bifolia Baker was poorly known. Plants fitting the original description of A. bifolia were found at the type locality near Grahamstown, South Africa, during extensive field work for a revision of the genus Album L. Here we provide new data and a detailed morphological description for this species. Furthermore two new species, Albuca anisocrispa sp. nov. and A. pseudobifolia sp. nov., both closely related to A. bifolia, are described here on the basis of floral, vegetative, ecological, and chorological data. Both new species are described in detail, and affinities and divergences with close allies are discussed.

Evolutionary trends and phylogenetic relationships in the Strelitziaceae (Zingiberales) were investigated using sequence data from ten plastid and two nuclear regions and a morphological dataset. The status of species of Strelitzia were evaluated in terms of the phylogenetic species concept. Relationships among the genera remain equivocal with two hypotheses emerging: (i) Strelitzia sister to a clade comprising Ravenala and Phenakospermum when indels are included, or (ii) Ravenala sister to the remainder of the Strelitziaceae when indels are excluded in/from the combined molecular and ‘total evidence’ analyses. Within Strelitzia, S. nicolai is sister to the rest of the genus, with S. alba sister to S. caudata. Strelitzia reginae is shown to be paraphyletic as S. juncea is nested within it, but more sampling at the population level is needed to confirm the taxonomic status of S. juncea. The highly localized and endangered Strelitzia alba is confirmed as a distinct species, as are S. caudata and S. nicolai, despite few morphological differences. Evolutionary trends are linked to changes in habitat and coevolution with pollinators. Climate change in southern Africa is thought to have restricted Strelitzia nicolai (or its ancestor) to the eastern coastal region, with subsequent allopatric speciation of S. alba and S. caudata, and relatively recent parapatric divergence of S. juncea from S. reginae.

Calathea, with an estimated 285 species, is the largest genus of Marantaceae and an important component of Neotropical herbaceous diversity. The genus is also of high importance for horticulture as species are cultivated for their showy, patterned leaves. Previous molecular phylogenetic studies indicated that the genus is polyphyletic, but have not provided a basis for redefining generic limits due to incomplete taxon sampling. To address this problem we analyzed DNA sequence data from three plastid markers (matK with flanking 3′ trnK intron, trnL intron and trnL-trnF intergenic spacer) and one nuclear marker (ITS) under a maximum parsimony criterion for a large and representative taxon sample covering all previously proposed infrageneric entities, and representing the full range of morphological variation known in the genus. Our results confirm that Calathea is polyphyletic. One clade, including subgenus Calathea, the C. lanicaulis group, and the genus Sanblasia, is sister to a clade formed by Ischnosiphon and Pleiostachya. The genus Monotagma is placed as sister to this clade. The remaining species form a second strongly supported clade as sister to a clade containing these other genera. Based on these findings Calathea is recircumscribed in a narrow sense and Sanblasia is placed in synonymy. The genus Goeppertia is resurrected and redefined to include all members of the second Calathea clade. Morphological characters defining each genus are provided. A total of 246 new combinations are made.

Alcantarea pataxoana is described and illustrated. The new species is compared to Alcantarea burle-marxii, which we assume is the most morphologically similar species, as well as to A. nahoumii. The new species is the second taxon of this genus recorded for the flora of the state of Bahia, northeastern Brazil, and its differences from A. nahoumii are highlighted in an updated taxonomic key for that state.

Vriesea is the second-largest genus of Bromeliaceae, with more than 280 species. Although the genus is traditionally circumscribed as a natural group, all phylogenetic analysis undertaken indicates its polyphyletic origin. Several groups of Vriesea species are difficult to define taxonomically based on morphological characters only, including the Vriesea corcovadensis group, composed of 11 species. We evaluated the monophyly and relationships among the species of the V. corcovadensis group through a maximum parsimony morphological analysis. The data set contains information about all 11 species placed in this group; in addition, species from six related genera of Tillandsioideae were included, for a total of 23 terminal taxa. Two separate analyses were carried out, the first containing 54 characters (42 from external morphology and 12 from leaf anatomy), and the second containing only characters from external morphology. The purpose of this distinction was to evaluate the phylogenetic signal of the anatomical characters. The first analysis with 54 characters produced two most-parsimonious trees with 239 steps, CI = 0.40 and RI = 0.54. The second analysis with 42 characters generated six trees with 187 steps, CI = 0.39 and RI = 0.52. The prior separation of the V. corcovadensis group was not supported in either analysis, confirming the difficulty of circumscribing monophyletic groups in the genus. Use of the anatomical characters helped to produce a tree with higher resolution. The leaf anatomy of the group is described for the first time. We report anatomical features among the different species of the V. corcovadensis group, thus corroborating the analysis based on characteristics of external morphology for these species. All of these features are apparently plesiomorphic, since the group was shown to be paraphyletic. However, only through a comprehensive analysis of Tillandsioideae as whole will it become possible to identify monophyletic groups in Vriesea with some accuracy.

Multivariate and univariate analyses were used to investigate the morphological variation among the species of Stipa sections Smirnovia and Subsmirnovia. The MODECLUS procedure using Gower's similarity coefficient and UPGMA were used to discover how the selected specimens segregated. Subsequently different analyses were applied to qualitative and quantitative characters to determine which were the most discriminating and to determine group placement for each specimen. This study recognizes 18 taxa for section Smirnovia, whereas section Subsmirnovia comprises only one species, S. gaubae, which is clearly distinguished by its 3-styled ovary and its long basal leaf ligule. Both qualitative and quantitative characters are necessary for species delimitation. The present work has corroborated previously used diagnostic characters, such as: lemma and awn length, lemma indumentum, awn shape, column indumentum, seta/column length ratio, callus indumentum and shape, presence of coronula, basal leaf ligule cilia, and the number of styles. Likewise, some characters not previously studied in detail, were significant in species delimitation such as the presence of falcate trichomes on the callus of S. caucasica subsp. drobovii and the subdorsal and lateral rows of fused trichomes in S. kiemenzii. Finally, a key to species in subsections Smirnovia and Subsmirnovia is provided.

Axonopus is a largely Neotropical genus comprising about 85 species. Many classifications have been proposed based exclusively on morphological characters. Our studies, including both molecular and morphological data, suggest that Axonopus is paraphyletic due to the inclusion of Centrochloa and Ophiochloa. Considering that there are no strong morphological traits that differentiate either Centrochloa or Ophiochloa from Axonopus, we propose the following new combinations: Axonopus singularis, comb. nov., Axonopus bryoides, comb. nov., and Axonopus hydrolithicus, comb. nov. We also suggest the need to review the infrageneric classifications taking into account both morphological and molecular data.

Two new species of Luetzelburgia Harms (Leguminosae, Papilionoideae, Vataireoid clade) are described and illustrated under the names Luetzelburgia andina and L. sotoi. A detailed discussion of the diagnostic morphological characters of the new species is provided. Both new species are found in seasonally dry forests in Bolivia. This discovery extends the previously known range for the genus to outside Brazil.

A new species of Ficus sect. Pharmacosycea, endemic to the municipality of Barbacoa, Nariño, Colombia is here described and illustrated as Ficus dewolfii Pederneiras & Romaniuc. It is characterized by a caudate leaf apex and lateral veins diverging from the midrib almost at a right angle, and shows similarities with F. rieberiana, F. apollinaris, and F. mutisii.

Euphorbia flaviana , a new species endemic to the State of Bahia in eastern Brazil, is described and illustrated. The new species belongs to Euphorbia [subgenus Chamaesyce] section Crossadenia and is morphologically most similar to Euphorbia teres, from which it differs in having thinner, longer, numerous verticillate branches, and involucral glands without appendages. An artificial key to all nine members of Euphorbia section Crossadenia is provided, and Euphorbia crossadenia is lectotypified.

Eugenia tumescens B. S. Amorim & M. Alves, a new species from northeastern Brazil is here described, illustrated, and compared to its putative closest relatives. This species is distinguished from other species of Eugenia by the inflorescence with short internodes, the tumescent pedicel apex, deciduous and linear bracteoles, and glandular-rugose fruit. Eugenia tumescens is found in the lowland and sub-montane portions of the Brazilian Atlantic Forest from Pernambuco.

A systematic re-evaluation of Grewioideae (Malvaceae) is provided. The results are based on analysis of morphological and DNA sequence data (ndhF). Investigations on floral morphology, anatomy, ontogeny, as well as on fruit and leaf morphology, and DNA data of Grewioideae and related genera contribute significantly to a better understanding of the intricate phylogenetic relationships of this plant group. The study documents that former classifications of Grewioideae need to be amended in favor of a new subdivision into two tribes, Apeibeae and Grewieae.

The boundaries between the genera Bakeridesia and Abutilon have long been debated. Results from recent phylogenetic studies using the rDNA ITS in tribe Malveae strongly suggest that these two genera as currently delimited are polyphyletic. Some species previously included in each genus form a well-supported clade that is phylogenetically removed from both Bakeridesia and Abutilon. The congruence of morphological and karyological distinctions with this molecular evidence provides compelling support for recognition of the clade as a new genus, here described as Callianthe. In the present study we transfer 40 species to Callianthe based on ITS data (including the synapomorphy of a 25-base pair deletion in ITS2) and/or morphological evidence, including the character states of four or more ovules per carpel, toothed and/or lobed leaves, and petals with impressed veins (the latter is a synapomorphy). In addition, species of Callianthe share a base chromosome number of x = 8 (versus 7 in Abutilon and 15 in Bakeridesia). Not only is Callianthe phylogenetically removed from both Bakeridesia and Abutilon, but it is also morphologically distinct from its closest phylogenetic relative, Gaya, which has a base chromosome number of x = 6. Callianthe has a Neotropical distribution with a center of diversity in eastern Brazil. It includes all species previously referred to Bakeridesia subg. Dipteron and several large-flowered species previously referred to Abutilon. The following new combinations are made Callianthe amoena, C. andrade-limae, C. bedfordiana, C. bezerrae, C. brenesii, C. cyclonervosa, C. darwinii, C. elegans, C. fluviatilis, C. geminiflora, C. glaziovii, C. inaequalis, C. jaliscana, C. jujuiensis, C. lanata, C. latipetala, C. laxa, C. longifolia, C. macrantha, C. malmeana, C. mexiae, C. monteiroi, C. mouraei, C. muellerifriderici, C. pachecoana, C. petiolaris, C. pickellii, C. picta, C. purpusii, C. regnellii, C. rufinerva, C. rufivela, C. scabrida, C. schenckii, C. sellowiana, C. senilis, C. striata, C. torrendii, C. tridens, and C. vexillaris.

Eriogonoideae s. s. (buckwheats and spineflowers, Polygonaceae) comprises morphologically diverse plants (ca. 325 species, 20 genera) distributed amphitropically in the New World. The lineage is hypothesized to have recently diversified mostly in arid habitats of the western U. S. A., where species richness and endemism are highest. Generic classification of Eriogonoideae s. s. has been unstable, mostly due to different morphological interpretations of the involucre. In this study, phylogenetic relationships of Eriogonoideae s. s. were estimated using multiple genes (ITS, trnL—F and psbD—trnT), optimality criteria (Bayesian, Garli ML and RAxML), and a large taxonomic sample (n = 160). Tribes Pterostegieae and Eriogoneae are monophyletic and subtribes Chorizanthineae and Eriogoneae are paraphyletic. The largest genera (Eriogonum and Chorizanthe) and most subgenera are paraphyletic. Most taxonomic groups shown to be non-monophyletic in phylogenies are also rejected for monophyly using the Shimodaira-Hasegawa test. With a primary goal of informing future taxonomic changes, major clades are identified that may be referrable to generic or infrageneric groups within Eriogonoideae s. s. Also, hypotheses regarding the variation of inflorescence features among Eriogonoideae s. s. are discussed.

Cryptantha (Boraginaceae) is a group of approximately 200 annual and perennial species, representing two-thirds of the diversity within subtribe Cryptanthinae. The genus exhibits an amphitropic distribution, occurring in temperate and desert regions of western North and South America. Fifty samples of 45 species of Cryptantha s. l., exemplars of the related genera Amsinckia, Pectocarya, and Plagiobothrys, and four outgroup taxa were sequenced for two gene regions, the nuclear ribosomal gene, ITS, and the trnLUAA intron region of the chloroplast genome. These data were used to assess phylogenetic relationships using parsimony, maximum likelihood, and Bayesian inference methods. Cryptantha s. l. was found to be polyphyletic, with its members placed among several well-supported clades. Based on these analyses, we propose resurrection of the genera Eremocarya, Greeneocharis, Johnstonella, and Oreocarya, and recognition of a newly delimited Cryptantha s. s. The related genera Amsinckia and Pectocarya were resolved as monophyletic and most closely related to various clades within Cryptantha s. l. Plagiobothrys was resolved as polyphyletic in three clades, these clades corresponding to previously named sections or groups of sections. The Cryptanthinae is supported as monophyletic. Character trait analyses support the multiple, derived evolution of perenniality, reduction in nutlet number, nutlet heteromorphism, smooth nutlet sculpturing, heterostyly, and cleistogamy. Although sampling is incomplete, this study generally supports the hypothesis of repeated, unidirectional dispersal events, from North to South America. Genera resurrected include: Eremocarya, Greeneocharis, Johnstonella, and Oreocarya. New combinations include: Greeneocharis circumscissa var. rosulata, Greeneocharis similis, Oreocarya atwoodii, Oreocarya barnebyi, Oreocarya compacta, Oreocarya crassipes, Oreocarya creutzfeldtii, Oreocarya fulvocanescens var. nitida, Oreocarya grahamii, Oreocarya hypsophila, Oreocarya johnstonii, Oreocarya ochroleuca, Oreocarya roosiorum, Oreocarya schoolcraftii, Oreocarya semiglabra, Oreocarya shackletteana, Oreocarya sobolifera, Oreocarya subcapitata, Oreocarya suffruticosa var. arenicola, Oreocarya suffruticosa var. laxa, Oreocarya suffruticosa var. pustulosa, Oreocarya suffruticosa var. setosa, Oreocarya welshii, Johnstonella angelica, Johnstonella angustifolia, Johnstonella costata, Johnstonella diplotricha, Johnstonella echinosepala, Johnstonella fastigiata, Johnstonella grayi var. cryptochaeta, Johnstonella grayi var. grayi, Johnstonella grayi var. nesiotica, Johnstonella holoptera, Johnstonella micromeres, Johnstonella parviflora, and Johnstonella pusilla.

The phylogenetic relationships of Mertensia (Boraginaceae), which comprises approximately 45 species in both Asia and North America, have been uncertain, and taxonomists have placed the genus in various tribes of subfamily Boraginoideae, with the most recent placements in Trigonotideae and Cynoglosseae. Our study applies molecular phylogenetic methods to test the monophyly and relationships of Mertensia. We used DNA sequence data from the nuclear ribosomal nrITS region and four cpDNA regions (matK, ndhF, rbcL, trnL-trnF) to examine the placement of Mertensia among a sampling of accessions from approximately 70% of the genera of Boraginaceae s. l. Phylogeny reconstructions using maximum parsimony, maximum likelihood, and Bayesian inference were largely congruent with previous molecular phylogenetic analyses of Boraginaceae that had applied far fewer taxa. We recovered five deep clades that correspond to Boraginaceae subfamilies Boraginoideae, Cordioideae, Heliotropioideae, Hydrophylloideae, and Ehretioideae (including Lennoa and Pholisma). In subfamily Boraginoideae, we recovered clades that correspond to the tribes Echiochilieae, Lithospermeae, Cynoglosseae, and Boragineae, although several tribes previously circumscribed on the basis of morphological data were not recovered as monophyletic in our results. Based on the sister relationship between the genus Codon and subfamily Boraginoideae found in our phylogeny reconstructions, we propose Codoneae as a new tribe of Boraginoideae. We recovered strong support for the monophyly of Mertensia and the placement of the monotypic genus Asperugo as its sister. Mertensia and Asperugo were strongly supported as members of Cynoglosseae.

The Phytocreneae (Icacinaceae) are a tribe of scrambling shrubs and lianas presently distributed in tropical Africa, Madagascar, and Indo-Malesia. We describe the oldest known fossils of this tribe and provide the first recognition of this group in the Neotropical fossil record based on distinctive fruit remains. Palaeophytocrene piggae sp. nov., from the late Paleocene of western North America, and Palaeophytocrene hammenii sp. nov. and cf. Phytocrene sp., from the middle-late Paleocene of Colombia, constitute the oldest confirmed records of this tribe. Pyrenacantha austroamericana sp. nov., from the Oligocene of Peru, represents an extant Old World genus known also from the Eocene fossil record of North America and Europe. Collectively, these fossils indicate that the Phytocreneae were previously established in the Neotropics, despite their current absence from the region, and may provide evidence for Paleogene floristic exchange between North and South America.

The Metastelmatinae (Asclepiadoideae, Apocynaceae) include 13 genera and approximately 260 species with complex morphological affinities that are broadly distributed in the Neotropics. This study investigated phylogenetic relationships within this subtribe using plastid (trnT-F, trnS-G, trnH-psbA, trnD-T, rps16, and matK) and nuclear (ITS) markers. The taxonomic sampling focused on the South American species, and included approximately 25% of the subtribe. Individual data partitions, and combined datasets were analyzed using Bayesian inference, maximum likelihood, and maximum parsimony. The results indicated that most genera of Metastelmatinae are not monophyletic. Internal relationships in the subtribe and key morphological characters used in the taxonomy of the group are discussed. The lack of resolution in the molecular phylogeny, incongruent phylogenetic signals between plastid and nuclear datasets, and the lack of morphological features for individual clades prevented major taxonomic changes in this group, those of which were restricted to the inclusion of Barjonia harleyi and Hemipogon harleyi into Minaria forming the new combinations Minaria harleyi and M. volubilis, and the synonymy of Macroditassa under Peplonia with the new combinations Peplonia adnata and P. macrophylla.

The first new species of Denscantia from the caatinga biome is described and illustrated. Denscantia calcicola is easily distinguished by its plicate-nerved and scabrous leaves, axillary inflorescences with 7–15 glomerules, calyx tube 0.85–1.2 mm long, bifid stigma and pollen grains with only one endocingulum.

Isodon wui (Lamiaceae), from Mt. Jiaozi in Yunnan province, is newly described and illustrated. The new species is morphologically most similar to I. irroratus but is smaller and has narrowly ovate (vs. ovate) leaves and leaf surfaces with unicellular, eglandular (vs. clavate, glandular) trichomes. The new species differs from I. irroratus in geographical distribution by occurring in central Yunnan instead of northwestern Yunnan and Sichuan. Features of the new species pertaining to leaf surface anatomy, pollen morphology, and geographical distribution are described, and a key to all 42 species of Isodon in Yunnan province is provided.

The systematics of subtribe Symphyotrichinae were studied with sequence data from two nuclear regions: the 18S–26S nrDNA internal and external transcribed spacers (ITS and ETS) and the 5S nrDNA non-transcribed spacer. The primary objective was to use data from these two regions to resolve relationships among Almutaster, Psilactis, and Symphyotrichum. The combined ITS ETS data and the 5S data were subjected to phylogenetic analyses using parsimony and Bayesian methods. Both datasets identified two major clades in Symphyotrichinae: one consisting of Almutaster, Psilactis, and Symphyotrichum subgenus Virgulus, and the other consisting of most other species of Symphyotrichum, including all species of S. subgenus Symphyotrichum. In addition, there were seven instances of disagreement between the ITS ETS and 5S results. Assessments of these incongruences suggested that there have been three occurrences of reticulate evolution, involving six species of Symphyotrichum: 1) S. tenuifolium, 2) S. moranense S. trilineatum, and 3) S. concolor S. ericoides S. pratense.