Western Amazonia is one of the regions of the world with the highest terrestrial biodiversity. We conducted transect censuses between November and December 2012 in order to determine the diversity and the densities of primate populations, and their group sizes and habitat use in the Río Curaray region. During 610 km of transect surveys, we encountered 304 groups of 13 primate species. Woolly monkeys, Lagothrix poeppigii, were the most frequently observed (n = 49 sightings) and pygmy marmosets, Cebuella pygmaea, the least (n = 8). Population density was lowest for howler monkeys, Alouatta seniculus (9.8 individuals km^-2) and saki monkeys, Pithecia aequatorialis (11.8 individuals km^-2) and highest for squirrel monkeys, Saimiri macrodon (65.0 individuals km^-2) and woolly monkeys (65.3 individuals km^-2). Primate groups were most frequently encountered in “palmales de altura” (97 encounters of 12 species). In conclusion, the Río Curaray region harbors a very high diversity of primates, matching other sites in Amazonia and worldwide, and populations there are evidently healthy and well conserved. We recommend the creation of a protected area contiguous with the Yasuní National Park in Ecuador.

The genus Cheirogaleus, the dwarf lemurs, is a radiation of strepsirrhine primates endemic to the island of Madagascar. The dwarf lemurs are taxonomically grouped in the family Cheirogaleidae (Infraorder: Lemuriformes) along with the genera Microcebus, Mirza, Allocebus, and Phaner. The taxonomic history of the genus Cheirogaleus has been controversial since its inception due to a paucity of evidence in support of some proposed species. In this study, we addressed this issue by expanding the geographic breadth of samples by 91 individuals and built upon existing mitochondrial (cytb and COII) and nuclear (FIBA and vWF) DNA datasets to better resolve the phylogeny of Cheirogaleus. The mitochondrial gene fragments D-loop and PAST as well as the CFTR-PAIRB nuclear loci were also sequenced. In agreement with previous genetic studies, numerous deep divergences were resolved in the C. major, C. minor and C. medius lineages. Four of these lineages were segregated as new species, seven were identified as confirmed candidate species, and four were designated as unconfirmed candidate species based on comparative mitochondrial DNA sequence data gleaned from the literature or this study. Additionally, C. thomasi was resurrected. Given the widespread distribution of the genus Cheirogaleus throughout Madagascar, the methodology employed in this study combined all available lines of evidence to standardize investigative procedures in a genus with limited access to type material and a lack of comprehensive sampling across its total distribution. Our results highlighted lineages that likely represent new species and identified localities that may harbor an as-yet undescribed cryptic species diversity pending further field and laboratory work.

To help inform conservation efforts for the Endangered crowned sifaka Propithecus coronatus, in 2010, we attempted to better define the known distribution of sifakas in western central Madagascar through field surveys of 17 sites we considered likely to fall in or close to the historic range of P. coronatus. We observed P. coronatus at seven sites, in the Boeny, Betsiboka and Bongolava regions. At three sites at the intersection of the regions of Bongolava, Melaky and Menabe we observed populations containing sifaka of P. deckenii appearance mixed with melanistic individuals. We observed P. verreauxi at the two most southerly sites, in the Amoron'i Mania Region, and P. coquereli at one north-easterly site in the Betsiboka Region, a southern extension of 90 km to the known range of the species. At the four remaining sites, sifaka appeared to be either absent or extinct. We observed two other lemur species, Eulemur mongoz in the Boeny Region, and E. rufus in the Betsiboka Region, the latter observation being a small extension to the species' known range. We noted variation in pelage coloration amongst the P. coronatus individuals we observed, mainly regarding the extent and tone of the rufous wash on the back, arms and legs, but also in the color of the head, and the presence or absence of dark patches on the nape or at the root of the tail. The melanistic forms of P. deckenii varied greatly, some being very dark brown on large areas of the head, back, arms and legs, and appearing unlike any typical sifaka species, others exhibiting an intermediate coloration fairly similar to P. coronatus. We therefore suggest that P. coronatus should not be considered to represent an extreme melanistic form of P. deckenii, and that most previous reports of possible sympatry between the two taxa might alternatively be explained by a melanistic tendency in P. deckenii, possibly arising from occasional gene flow from P. coronatus. Our results show that P. coronatus may now be considered widely distributed through western central Madagascar, but most forests in this area are small and fragmented, and sifaka populations are highly endangered. We therefore recommend the implementation of immediate conservation interventions to ensure the maintenance of the full range of chromatic and genetic diversity of P. coronatus.

From mid-November to late December 2011, we surveyed 12 sites in nine communes in and around the south-western part of the range of the Endangered crowned sifaka Propithecus coronatus in western Madagascar. We observed sifaka appearing to be P. coronatus at four sites in the Menabe Region; at three of them several of the sifaka were melanistic. Decken's sifaka P. deckenii were recorded at three sites, and Verreaux's sifaka P. verreauxi at one site. We found no evidence of sifakas between the Tsiribihina and Manambolo rivers west of latitude about 45°E, and local people claimed they have never existed there. We therefore recommend that the forests in this area be excluded from the current distribution range of P. coronatus. We found no sifakas resembling P. deckenii in the melanistic P. coronatus groups, which appears to confirm the hypothesis that most previous reports of possible sympatry between these two species can be better explained by melanism in P. deckenii. The typical individuals of P. coronatus we report showed lightly or heavily washed rufous coloration on the forearms and upper back. The melanistic forms we describe can be categorized as either a “very dark” form, characterized by dark brown to blackish coloration on the forearms and upper back, or as an “intermediate” form, showing dull rufous or light brown forearms and upper back. In reality there appeared to be a continuum in chromatic variation from the typically colored individuals, through the intermediate melanistic form, to the very dark form. These melanistic sifakas appear similar to the darker melanistic forms of P. deckenii north of the Manombolo River, rather than to the melanistic forms of P. coronatus reported to the south-east of our survey sites, or to melanistic forms of P. verreauxi south of the Tsiribihina River. Ancient gene-flow between sifaka taxa may be one of the causes of these melanistic tendencies, but we recommend further research to clarify the situation. These newly reported populations are at a high risk of local extinction. Containing melanistic forms not found elsewhere, we propose that they should be considered of considerable conservation importance with regard to preserving unique chromatic variation, and probably also genetic diversity, in P. coronatus.

The crowned sifaka (Propithecus coronatus) and Decken's sifaka (Propithecus deckenii) are Endangered lemurs endemic to west and central Madagascar. Both have suffered habitat loss and fragmentation throughout their ranges. The goal of this study, conducted in the Mahavavy-Kinkony Wetland Complex (MKWC) in northwestern Madagascar, was to assess the effects of historical change in the species' habitats, and to model the potential impact of further land-use change on their habitats. The IDRISI Andes Geographical Information System and image-processing software was used for satellite-image classification, and the Land Change Modeler was used to compare the natural habitat of the species from 1973 to 2005, and to predict available habitat for 2050. We analyzed two forests in the MKWC occupied by P. coronatus (Antsilaiza and Anjohibe), and three forests occupied by P. deckenii (Tsiombikibo, Marofandroboka and Andohaomby). The two forests occupied by P. coronatus contracted during the period 1949–1973, but then expanded to exceed their 1949 area by 28% in 2005. However, the land change model predicted that they will contract again to match their 1949 area by 2050, and will again lose their corridor connection, meaning that the conservation gains for this species in the complex are at risk of being reversed. The three forests occupied by P. deckenii have declined in area steadily since 1949, losing 20% of their original area by 2005, and are predicted to lose a further 15% of their original area by 2050. Both species are therefore at risk of becoming even more threatened if land-use change continues within the complex. Improved conservation of the remaining forest is recommended to avoid further loss, as well as ecological restoration and reforestation to promote connectivity between the forests. A new strategy for controlling agriculture and forest use is required in order to avoid further destruction of the forest.

The crowned sifaka (Propithecus coronatus) is Endangered. It has a large but highly fragmented distribution; its known range extends from the Betsiboka River in the north of Madagascar, to the Mahavavy River in the north-west, and down to the Tsiribihina River in the south-west. The species lives in forest habitats that are highly and increasingly fragmented and are continuously suffering perturbations and destruction. In order to carry out effective conservation measures targeting P. coronatus, its conservation status needs to be updated so that measures can be taken before anthropogenic or natural environmental changes lead to the extirpation of the species in most of its forests. We (i) identified forest fragments where the species is still present and (ii) using the line-transect “Distance” sampling method, estimated the population size and density in the principal remaining forest fragments in the northern part of its range, including both protected and unprotected areas. We visited most of the forests in the northern part of its range in order to update the current area of occupancy, and to rate the state of its forests using a qualitative “forest quality index.” Our survey results have shown that (i) a large number of forests have disappeared or decreased in size in the last 10 years, and (ii) population densities vary considerably among forest fragments (ranging from 49 to 309 individuals per km²), with some very high densities in forests located along the Mahavavy River and in the Antrema area. Their abundance in the area surveyed is likely to be between 4,226 and 36,672 individuals, and most probably above 10,000. It is difficult to extrapolate from these estimates to the total abundance across the species' entire range, but we estimate that it is likely to be large, probably between 130,000 and 220,000 individuals. Unfortunately, many field observations suggest that its populations continue to decline at a high rate due to habitat loss and hunting, and we argue for the re-evaluation of the conservation status from Endangered A2cd to Endangered A4acd, and the need to survey the rest of the range of P. coronatus.

Signals are important for species recognition. In this study, I examined the acoustic structure of loud calls (“Tchi-faks”) in two populations of closely related lemur species in Madagascar, the Decken's and crowned sifakas (Propithecus deckenii and P. coronatus). Both populations exhibited a strong individual signature in the acoustic structure of Tchi-faks. Furthermore, Tchi-faks clearly differed in the acoustic structure between the two populations. Tchi-faks of Decken's sifakas at Bemahara were, on average, longer and have more energy in lower frequency ranges than Tchi-faks of crowned sifakas at Antrema. This variation is most likely due to anatomical differences of the vocal tract between the two species. However, loud calls of further populations need to be studied in order to understand whether the documented variation in loud calls represents species-specific signatures. In addition, to understanding whether these loud calls are important for species recognition, playback experiments are required to examine if sifakas themselves discriminate between calls of different species.

We carried out a study of the social behavior and dominance hierarchy in three groups of crowned sifaka (Propithecus coronatus) in the Antrema Forest Station in north-west Madagascar. Data were collected from April to June 2009 and October to November 2009 using all-occurrence sampling. During 273 hours of observation, the majority of social behaviors observed were grooming interactions (39%), followed by agonistic behavior (25%), play (19%), scent-marking (9%), call-localization (5%) and approach (3%). A social hierarchy was maintained in the groups of P. coronatus, with females dominating the males. Although different groups of P. coronatus defended their territories against other neighboring groups of the same species, the most frequently observed outcome of intergroup encounters was tolerance. In addition, we detected no significant change of sifaka behavior during interspecific encounters with rufous brown lemur (Eulemur rufus) or with mongoose lemur (Eulemur mongoz), suggesting these two species live in total sympatry with P. coronatus.

A European Endangered Species Program (EEP) was set up for the crowned sifaka (Propithecus coronatus) in 2007, and the European captive population was identified as a conservation priority for the species during the first technical meeting on its conservation in 2011. In this article I trace the history of the European population over 25 years of management, and report on the main problems encountered during this time: the lack of females, high mortality rates of infants, and the management, of surplus males. I also present general information on the demography and genetics of the captive population, as well the principle findings of studies on the biology of the species in captivity, including, particularly, observations on reproduction: number and duration of estrus, inter-estrus interval, detection of estrus by the change in behavior of both sexes, data on fertility by age in both sexes, age at first estrus and first birth, gestation length, body weight at birth, and interbirth interval. Records of the breeding success of each female and for each pair are summarized: number of offspring, infant mortality rate, age at first birth, specific management of each female/pair, and interbirth interval. I discuss the contribution of the European holders, including the Parc Zoologique de Paris, to the conservation of the crowned sifaka through their strong involvement in in situ projects, among them a metapopulation project recently initiated by the EEP. In this project, the European captive population is included in a global management plan for the species, in particular to contribute to the management of the smallest wild populations living in isolated fragments of forest. The educational activities developed by the European holders and then by the EEP increase awareness and knowledge of the species and facilitate fundraising for the in situ projects supported.

The Ashy red colobus monkey (Piliocolobus tephrosceles) was recently discovered in the Mbuzi Forest. Since then its forests have been degraded, fragmented and converted into farmland. In this study I documented the diet, including cultivated crops, of four groups in the Mbuzi forest-farm mosaic during two months in the crop-growing season, July—August 2011. Each group was followed for nine days; 36 days overall. It was not possible to extend the study in subsequent years because the forest was so fragmented that the monkeys were no longer staying in some patches. The monkeys fed mostly on wild plants. Crop-raiding was limited to beans, and occurred in the evenings when the farmers had left the fields. Extreme fragmentation, degradation and widespread forest conversion into farmland have drastically reduced the abundance of food trees; and it is likely that this has resulted in their crop-raiding. They are persecuted for this behavior, and retaliatory killing by farmers is probably contributing to their decline in the Mbuzi Forest. The conservation of intact montane forests on the Ufipa Plateau is crucial and urgent. Measures must include conservation education, community involvement and improved law enforcement, as well as provisions for local communities to reduce the destruction of the remaining forest patches.

Maintenance of the diversity of primates depends not only on the conservation of protected areas, but also on the conservation of areas that lack formal protection and are occupied by people, crops, and/or livestock. Livestock rangelands, when well-managed, can support viable populations of primates. This article describes (1) the primate community in the rangeland agroecosystem of Laikipia County, central Kenya, (2) how primates use this agroecosystem, (3) the importance of this agroecosystem to the primates of Laikipia, and (4) the threats to these primates. Patas monkeys Erythrocebus patas, olive baboons Papio anubis, vervet monkeys Chlorocebus pygerythrus, and northern lesser galagos Galago senegalensis in the Laikipia rangeland agroecosystem benefit from man-made perennial water sources, habitat protection, reduced large predator densities, and an array of research and conservation activities. The level of conflict between humans and non-human primates in this rangeland agroecosystem is low relative to that in neighboring cropland agroecosystems. The main threats are habitat fragmentation, degradation and loss, and the decline of perennial water sources. Hunting is not a serious threat to primates in Laikipia. Erythrocebus patas is the most threatened primate in Laikipia and the one least tolerant of humans and habitat degradation and loss. Habitat conservation in Laikipia should focus on water-associated vegetation types and the adjacent whistling thorn Acacia drepanolobium woodlands, particularly along the Ewaso N'yiro River and its major tributaries.

Little is known about the extent of primate abundance and distribution in Burkina Faso, West Africa. Only two prior surveys have been reported, each in just one protected area and one dating as far back as 1976. With this study, we aimed to update our understanding of primate presence in Burkina Faso. Between 11 May and 16 July 2012, we surveyed nearly 250 km in five protected areas along the southern border of the country, collecting data on the presence of primates, predators, and poaching activities. Although several sources have listed up to nine primate species as present in Burkina Faso, we were only able to confirm five of four genera: Galago senegalensis, Papio anubis, Erythrocebus patas, Chlorocebus sabaeus, and Chlorocebus tantalus. With the results of the surveys, and in-depth interviews with 24 workers, farmers and protected area officials, we indicate that Pan troglodytes verus has been extirpated from Burkina Faso, and that Colobus vellerosus and Cercocebus lunulatus are either already gone or are close to extirpation. We report encounter rates for Papio anubis, Erythrocebus patas, Chlorocebus, Panthera leo, Panthera pardus, and poaching activities. The threats to the remaining primate species include legal and illegal hunting, and inconsistent and ineffective law enforcement in protected areas. Agricultural expansion will continue to rise as a threat to these species, particularly Papio anubis and Erythrocebus patas, through habitat alteration as well as increasing human-wildlife conflict over crop-feeding behaviors.

Despite being protected throughout their range, the illegal trade in slow lorises is a clear impediment to their conservation. Little is known about this trade from Myanmar. We report on three visits to the town of Mong La, Myanmar, on the border with China, where Bengal slow lorises Nycticebus bengalensis are traded illegally. Combined with survey data from other researchers, it is clear that slow lorises are ubiquitously present at Mong La's animal market. They are traded either as parts—carcasses, skins, and hands and feet (average of 26 items/survey)—or alive (average of 5 individuals/survey). Live animals typically arrive at the market in the morning; they are slaughtered, and the carcass at least is sold the same day. Estimating from live animals, our data suggest that over a thousand Bengal slow lorises may be traded annually from this one market alone. Trade in Mong La may be local or may be geared towards the Chinese market, and thus the trade in Mong La is not only contra to Myanmar's law but also clearly violates the rules and intentions of CITES. We hope that by documenting the trade in slow lorises we will raise awareness amongst conservationists and primatologists about the realities of the unsustainable hunting of slow lorises and that it will be an incentive for the Myanmar and Chinese authorities to take appropriate action to curb this illegal trade.

In India, the capped langur (Trachypithecus pileatus) occurs in Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, and Tripura. Elsewhere it is found in Bhutan, Bangladesh, northwestern Myanmar and a small area of Tibet, China. It is a forest-dwelling primate occurring in lowland, wet, evergreen rain forest to temperate forest. It ranges from the plains, 5 m above sea level, to 2,800 m in the Himalaya. Although it is the second most abundant primate of Assam, its populations are declining due to continuous destruction of its forests, and also hunting. Since the 1980s, one-third of the capped langur habitat in Assam has been lost because of tree felling and encroachment. It has been recorded in 53 protected areas in Northeast India. Of five subspecies recognized in the past (pileatus, durga, brahma, shortridgei and tenebricus) shortridgei is now considered to be a full species, and durga a junior synonym of pileatus. Trachypithecus p. pileatus occurs south of the Brahmaputra River; T. p. brahma and T. p. tenebricus occur north of the river. The lower reaches of the Jia-Bhoreli—Kameng River separate tenebricus (in the west) from brahma (in the east), but in the upper reaches in the higher Himalaya there is possible intergradation. Here, I report on hitherto unrecorded differences in facial hair patterns, (especially the cap) that differentiate the three subspecies. The langurs south of the Brahmaputra (pileatus) have shorter whiskers, and a distinct, conspicuous “army-cut hairstyle”-like cap, well separated from the ears. The subspecies to the north can be separated by the form of the cap—hairs radiating from the forehead to form a shaggy cap in tenebricus, and a less shaggy cap, resembling that of pileatus, but which extends to the ears in brahma. The distinguishing features are more dependable than overall color patterns, which vary individually and with age, sex, and season.

We studied the population status of Phayre's langur (Trachypithecus phayrei) in the Sepahijala Wildlife Sanctuary (23°37′N to 23°42′N and 91°17′E to 91°21′E), West Tripura district, Northeast India, from December 2009 to February 2010. Using line transect and recce sampling, we recorded seven groups comprising 95 individuals. The average group size was estimated at 13.14 individuals per group (range 8–19, SD = 3.77). The population comprises 7.4% adult males, 34.7% adult females, 23.2% of sub adults, 26.3% juveniles, and 8.4% infants.

Two subspecies of slender loris, the Mysore slender loris, Loris lydekkerianus lydekkerianus, and the Malabar slender loris, Loris lydekkerianus malabaricus, are known from Peninsular India. Their distributions overlap along the southern ridges of the Western Ghats. Although the distribution and abundance of the species is known for part of the state of Kerala, the full extent of the range of the species remains unclear. We surveyed forested areas of southern Kerala for a more comprehensive understanding of their distribution pattern and relative abundance. The range of L. l. malabaricus is confined to the western slopes of the Western Ghats. The Ariankavu pass and Palghat gap have created a barrier over a period of time, which has resulted in separate populations of L. l. malabaricus. As such, L. l. malabaricus is divided into three populations in Kerala—(1) Neyyar Wildlife Sanctuary in the southern tip to the south of the Ariankavu pass, (2) north of Ariankavu pass north to the Palghat Gap, and (3) north of the Palghat gap to the Aralam Wildlife Sanctuary. The relative abundance of L. l. malabaricus in most of the forest divisions of Kerala is <0.2 lorises/km, except in the Aralam Wildlife Sanctuary, Konni, Thiruvanthapuram, Nemmara, and Chimmoney.

The lion-tailed macaque, endemic to the evergreen forests of the Western Ghats in southern India, is endangered. Over the last two decades surveys have documented population declines in a number of areas. There still exists a huge gap, however, in our knowledge of this macaque's status at many sites. It is imperative to identify and conserve existing populations in contiguous, large and undisturbed forests. We present the results of a first complete population survey carried out in the Kalakad-Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve (KMTR) in the Agasthyamalai landscape; an area that has not been surveyed for two decades. We found a population of at least 462 lion-tailed macaques in 30 groups. The mean group size was 15.4 individuals per group, and the adult sex ratio was 3.5 females/male. The forest of the KMTR is connected with forest reserves in the states of Tamilnadu and Kerala, and it is probable that the lion-tailed macaque population of KMTR is likewise contiguous. Measures must be taken at a landscape level for the long-term conservation of the species; the status of the populations in the neighboring sites need to be assessed, and priority should be given to adequate protection for the Agasthyamalai sub-population as a whole.

Confiscated and donated white-handed gibbons (Hylobates lar) originating from the local wildlife trade have been rescued by the Gibbon Rehabilitation Project (GRP) and rehabilitated on Phuket since 1992. Here we present some results of this long-term gibbon reintroduction project. Following unsuccessful early release attempts beginning in 1993, GRP has experimented with reintroduction methods and developed a protocol that has succeeded in re-establishing a small independent breeding population in a 22-km² forest fragment on Phuket. Eight breeding families of gibbons were released into the Khao Phra Thaew non-hunting area between October 2002 and November 2012 using a soft-release reintroduction method in which the gibbons were provisioned with fresh food in the trees for at least one year, or as long as they needed it. The adult pair in the first gibbon family that was reintroduced there has remained together for 10 years post-release, they have maintained the original pair-bond and raised three wild-born offspring. The reintroduced population has seen eleven infants born in the wild, including a second-generation gibbon born to the first wild-born female. Female interbirth intervals and ages at first reproduction in the reintroduced population are comparable with those in wild populations. Of the seven adult females originally released, two remain with their original mates and two remain in the wild paired with different mates. By the end of 2012, three of the six wild groups were not nuclear families, indicating a flexibility of group composition seen in well-studied wild populations.