No reference values are available in Strigiformes to evaluate blood coagulation using dynamic viscoelastic coagulometry (DVC) with the Sonoclot (Sienco, Boulder, CO, USA) analyzer. The objectives of this study were 1) to assess the feasibility of DVC in Strigiformes, 2) to calculate the index of individuality of each coagulation parameter, and 3) to assess interspecies variability and establish reference intervals, if relevant, based on the index of individuality. Fresh whole blood samples were obtained from healthy Strigiformes, including 13 barred owls (Strix varia), 10 great horned owls (Bubo virginianus), 6 snowy owls (Bubo scandiacus), and 7 eastern screech owls (Megascops asio), and analyzed with DVC with glass bead (gb) and kaolin clay (k) coagulation activators. Activated clotting time (ACT), clot rate (CR), and platelet function were determined immediately after collection using fresh native whole blood. Intraindividual variability was assessed with a second fresh native whole blood sample from 5 barred owls. Interindividual variability was assessed using a Kruskall-Wallis test. For the parameters gbACT (n = 35), gbCR (n = 34), and kACT (n = 27), no significant differences were detected between species (all P ≥ 0.05). Based on low index of individuality, global Strigiformes reference intervals were determined for gbACT (32.3–852.5 seconds; n = 35), gbCR (0–20.1 units/min; n = 29), and kACT (0–1570.3 seconds; n = 27). In conclusion, DVC can be used in Strigiformes and the gb coagulation activator would be more appropriate when basal individual values are not available in a tested individual.

The high cardiac contractility of birds poses a challenge to traditional cardiac auscultation, particularly for the accurate determination of heart rate (HR). The objectives of this study were to 1) evaluate the feasibility of using phonocardiograms of adequate length and quality to assess HR in different avian species with a commercially available digital stethoscope, 2) compare 5 counting methods, including 2 direct reading methods (manual counting and using a semiautomatic computerized algorithm as a reference method) and 3 listening methods (progressive mental counting, counting by 10s, and counting with a smartphone application tap counter), and 3) obtain the HR in selected birds and identify a correlation between body weight and HR in different avian species. An inverse correlation on a logarithmic scale was identified between the mean body weight and HR in 60 different bird species (n = 211; R = -0.72, P < 0.0001). Manual reading of phonocardiograms was the most reliable method and had the highest agreement with the reference method; this was followed by the counting by 10s method, the tapping method, and the progressive mental counting method, which was the least reliable. The agreement levels for the different methods were comparable for HRs <200 beats per minute (bpm) in birds weighing >1 kg. For HRs >500 bpm in birds weighing <150 g, only the reading method maintained a good agreement level. A digital stethoscope can be a useful tool for accurately determining the HR in birds, including very small species with high HRs.

Snakebite envenoming in avian species is infrequently reported in the veterinary literature, although perhaps not as rarely as recent publications suggest. A systematic scoping review was performed on the topic using PubMed and Google Scholar, 21 veterinary textbooks, and 139 conference proceedings. A practitioner experience survey was also performed, with recruitment from Facebook groups for exotic animal practitioners and professional organization email listservs. Only 31 texts met our inclusion/exclusion criteria, which meant they described clinicopathologic signs of snakebite envenomation in avian species, the treatment of snakebite envenomation in avian species, or expanded the geographic range or the number of captive avian and snake species involved. Reports included approximately 15–20 different species of both snakes and birds worldwide; however, no reports described clinicopathologic signs of naturally occurring snakebites from Asia, Australasia, or Europe. The few responses from our practitioner experience survey suggest that snakebite envenomation may be more common than previously reported. Clinical signs of snake envenomation in birds appear to depend on the snake species involved but often include local swelling and subcutaneous edema or hemorrhage with paired fang marks; weakness, bleeding, neurologic deficits, and death may follow. A wide variety of treatment protocols have been used to counter snakebite envenomation in birds, including the successful use of antivenom. Based on this body of evidence, much remains to be learned about snakebite envenomation of birds, particularly about the efficacy of different treatment protocols.

Backyard poultry hens are becoming very popular as pets, and thus the demand for treating the individual chicken is increasing. Few basic diagnostic techniques commonly used in small animal practice have been evaluated in this species. At the moment, there is no study in backyard hens describing radiographic measurements of internal organs contrary to psittacine birds or birds of prey. Moreover, the effect of egg laying on these measurements has not been studied in avian species even though it could affect radiographic measurements depending on the stage of egg formation. This is of particular concern in laying hens since they are able to lay on a daily basis. Thirteen adult hens and 3 juvenile Rhode Island red hybrid hens (Gallus gallus domesticus) were used to evaluate which organs can be reliably measured and to provide preliminary reference values for clinically healthy chickens. Additionally, whole body radiographs were collected every 2 hours over 24 hours in 5 adult hens to study the evolution of these measurements throughout egg formation. Organs that could be clearly delimitated on radiographs were measured, and the only organs that could be reliably measured were the heart and liver silhouettes. These measurements were significantly higher in adult compared to juvenile hens (P = 0.024). Among the different organ ratios, heart width: total liver width ratio was the only significantly different measurement and was higher in juvenile hens (P = 0.024). Hepatic silhouette measurements and ratios were found to increase over time (P < 0.02) but did not follow the progress of egg mineralization. Eggshell thickness was found to be a promising parameter to evaluate the stage of egg formation, and thus should be taken into account when trying to establish reference intervals for radiographic measurements of internal organs in laying hens.

Air sac cannulation is used both as an emergency procedure in avian patients with severe upper respiratory compromise, as well as a means of routine ventilation for surgery of the head and neck. The objective of this retrospective study was to describe and quantify the complications associated with air sac cannulation in birds. Medical records were retrieved for all patients that underwent caudal thoracic or abdominal air sac cannulation at a single center between August 2004 and October 2020. Patient signalment, indication for air sac cannulation, location of air sac cannula (ASC) placement, occurrence and category of complications encountered, and survival data were recorded. Eighty-four ASCs were placed in 68 birds across 6 orders; 95.2% (80/84) of cases survived general anesthesia for initial ASC placement. The side and position of ASC placement were known in 33.3% (28/84) and 21.4% (18/84) of cases, respectively. Survival to ASC removal was known in 91.3% (73/80) of cases; 43 (58.9%) of these 73 cases survived to ASC removal. Complications were observed in 32.5% (26/80) of cases, and 11.5% (3/26) of cases died as a direct result of the complication. The most common reported ASC complication was loss of patency in 23.8% (19/80) of cases. Increased likelihoods for complications were seen in cases where exercise intolerance (P = 0.04) or abnormal respiratory sounds (P = 0.04) were reported at presentation. Increased likelihoods for survival to ASC removal were seen with intercostal placements (P = 0.049) and peri-interventional antibiotic therapy (P = 0.005). Decreased likelihood for survival to ASC removal was seen in cases where voice change was reported at presentation (P = 0.02). This study demonstrates a moderate risk of ASC complication, with a guarded overall prognosis for survival to ASC removal.

Manual handling of chickens is required for many veterinary, research, and breeding procedures. This study aimed to assess the changes in physiological parameters over time during manual restraint of chickens, as well as the effect of hooding on these parameters. Heart rate, heart rate variability, respiratory rate, and body temperature were measured every 3 minutes for 15 minutes during manual restraint in 13 adult laying hens (Gallus gallus domesticus). Heart rate variability was significantly higher in hooded hens than in nonhooded hens (P= 0.003) but was not significant over time. Hooded hens were also found to have significantly lower heart rate (P = 0.043) and respiratory rate (P = 0.042) compared to nonhooded hens. Heart rate and respiratory rate significantly decreased over time, independent of the use of the hood (P = 0.008; P = 0.01, respectively). Temperature was found to increase significantly (P = 0.001) over time for both groups. Overall, hooding increased heart rate variability, a factor associated with a lower stress level, and decreased heart rate and respiratory rate. In conclusion, these data suggest that the use of the hood reduces stress levels in birds during manual restraint. Therefore, the use of the hood is encouraged for short (less than 15 minutes) painless procedures, such as physical examination or radiographic acquisition.

Pelvic limb fractures carry significant morbidity in avian patients, and although management options are well researched, published data on long-term complication rates and mortality outcomes are limited. Here, we present a cross-sectional study evaluating pelvic limb long bone fractures in companion psittacine birds presenting to an exotic-only veterinary hospital in the United Kingdom between 2005 and 2020, focusing on fixation techniques and long-term outcomes. Of the 60 cases that met the inclusion criteria, 22 separate species were represented, with an age range of 8 weeks to 25 years and an even distribution of sexes, among those that had been sexed. The majority of fractures (71.7%) were tibiotarsal; femoral (15%) and tarsometatarsal (13.3%) bones represented the other fracture sites. Several different fracture management methods were used, including external coaptation, surgery, or cage rest. Average time from fracture identification to healing was 33 days, with a median of 31 days and a range of 11–121 days. Satisfactory resolution of fracture repair was achieved in 85.5% (47/55) of cases that were able to be followed to conclusion. Complications were identified in 41.7% (25/60) of fractures of all pelvic long bones. Complications during fracture management were more common in cases treated with external coaptation. The most common complication reported was patient interference with bandages, splints, or both. This study provides an overview of pelvic limb long bone fracture management outcomes, which should prove useful for avian practitioners in clinical practice.

A 2-year-old female eclectus parrot (Eclectus roratus) was presented for suspected cervical myopathy due to trauma. Severe ventroflexion of the cervical spine and mental depression were identified during the physical examination. The bird was responsive to stimuli but otherwise quiet. Plasma biochemistry results were suggestive of a myopathy, based on marked elevations of both aspartate transaminase (25 652 U/L) and creatine kinase (253 240 U/L). Whole-body radiographic images were unremarkable. Treatment was initiated with supportive therapy for presumptive shock, dehydration, pain, myopathy, and possible spinal swelling. Allopathic therapy included subcutaneous fluids; vitamins A, D, and E; dexamethasone sodium phosphate; hydromorphone; and gavage feeding to treat the acute inflammatory process and provide nutritional support during healing. Supportive care through the Integrative Medicine Department (Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA, USA) was also performed on the patient. Photobiomodulation, acupuncture, Tui-na massage, and rehabilitation exercises were instituted to provide adjunct treatment for relieving pain, promoting muscle healing, improving patient demeanor, and improving cervical mobility. Integrative therapies were well tolerated by the patient, with no sedation required. By day 3, mentation had subjectively improved by 50% despite the persistent cervical ventroflexion. By day 8, the elevated serum enzyme activities had decreased, the patient could eat and drink on its own, and it could readily step up and seek attention during handling. The bird was able to lift its head and could hold it at approximately 50% of normal posture. Integrative therapies were continued throughout hospitalization. The bird was released from the hospital 20 days after initial intake, with head carriage in approximately 80% of the expected normal position and no apparent cervical pain based on palpation. This case demonstrates the benefits of integrative therapies as an adjunct treatment for cervical pain and myopathy in a psittacine species.

A 17-year-old captive female double yellow-headed Amazon parrot (Amazona oratrix) was presented to the Kansas State University Zoological Medicine Service (Manhattan, KS, USA) for a 2-month history of a left sided facial swelling. On examination, a red, raised mass was noted on the left side of the face. A whole-body computed tomography scan of the bird was performed to assess the extent of the mass and evaluate the patient for obvious evidence of disseminated disease. No systemic involvement was detected, and the swelling was localized to the cutaneous and subcutaneous tissues overlying the left rhamphotheca. Two punch biopsies were collected, and histopathology was consistent with cutaneous lymphoma, with strong positive CD3 staining congruous with a T-cell origin. Because of a lack of evidence for disseminated disease, the authors elected to pursue localized radiation therapy, and a single fraction of 8 Gray was administered. The swelling had resolved by the time of the recheck examination 4 weeks post–radiation therapy, and the patient remained clinically normal 52 weeks after radiation therapy.

A 19-year-old male ostrich (Struthio camelus) was referred to a veterinary teaching hospital (São Paulo State University, Botucatu, Brazil) due to a 6-month history of recurrent prolapse of the phallus. On physical examination, 2 ulcerative wounds were present on the phallus, as well as caseous plaques and myiasis. Conservative treatment resulted in improvement but prolapse of the phallus remained. Thus, a decision was made to perform a partial phallectomy. The surgery was successful and no postoperative complications occurred. When the ostrich was reexamined 6 months postsurgery, the ostrich was alert, in good health, and the surgical site completely healed. The owner verbally reported no recurrence of the phallus prolapse 1 year after surgery.