Plasma disposition and depletion of moxifloxacin were investigated in Japanese quail (Coturnix japonica) after single intravenous, intramuscular, and oral administration of 5 mg/kg and after intramuscular and oral administration of 5 mg/kg q24h for 5 consecutive days, respectively. Drug concentrations in plasma and tissues were measured by high-performance liquid chromatography with fluorescence detection. After intravenous injection, plasma drug concentration–time curves were best described by a 2-compartment open model. The decline in plasma drug concentration was biexponential with half-lives of 0.3 hours and 2.18 hours for distribution and elimination phases, respectively. Steady-state volume of distribution and total body clearance after intravenous administration were estimated to be 1.12 L/kg and 0.41 L/h per kilogram, respectively. After intramuscular and oral administration of moxifloxacin at the same dose, the peak plasma concentrations were 2.14 and 1.94 μg/mL and were obtained at 1.4 and 1.87 hours, respectively, and the elimination half-lives were 2.56 and 1.97 hours, respectively. The systemic bioavailabilities were 92.48% and 87.94%, respectively. Tissue levels after intramuscular and oral administration were highest in liver and kidneys, respectively, and decreased in the following order: plasma, lungs, and muscle. Moxifloxacin concentrations after intramuscular and oral administration were below the detection limit of the assay in tissues and plasma after 120 hours.

Although plate fixation has advantages over other fixation methods for certain indications, it is rarely used in avian surgery, especially in birds that weigh less than 1000 g. Exceptionally small plating systems for these birds are required, which are relatively expensive and difficult to insert. To study avian fracture healing after repair using miniplates, we evaluated 2 steel miniplate systems in 27 pigeons (Columba livia) divided into 4 groups. In each pigeon, the left ulna and radius were transected and the ulna was repaired with a bone plate. In groups A and B, a 1.3-mm adaption plate was applied without and with a figure-of-eight bandage; in groups C and D, a 1.0-mm compression plate was applied without and with a bandage, respectively. Healing was evaluated with radiographs after 3, 14, and 28 days; flight tests were conducted after 14, 21, and 28 days; and the wing was macroscopically examined after euthanasia of birds on day 28. Fractures healed without bending or distortion of the plate in all 27 birds, and no significant differences in healing were found between treatment groups. At the end of the study, 23 pigeons (85.2%) showed good or very good flight ability. Results show the 1.3-mm adaption plate and the 1.0-mm compression plate meet the requirements for avian osteosynthesis and can be recommended for fracture repair of the ulna or other long bones in birds weighing less than 500 g. The application of a figure-of-eight bandage might be beneficial in fracture healing.

Clinical signs of organophosphate and carbamate intoxication in wild birds can be mistaken for those of other diseases, thus potentially delaying diagnosis and implementation of life-saving treatment. The objective of this study was to determine the reference interval for blood cholinesterase activity in 20 different wild avian species from 7 different orders, thereby compiling a reference database for wildlife veterinarians. Blood was collected from birds not suspected of having organophosphate or carbamate toxicosis, and the modified Michel method, which determines the change in blood pH that directly correlates with cholinesterase activity, was used to measure blood cholinesterase levels. Results of change in blood pH values ranged from 0.11 for the white-tailed eagle (Haliaeetus albicilla) to 0.90 for the honey buzzard (Pernis apivorus). The results showed that even within the same family, interspecies differences in normal cholinesterase blood activity were not uncommon. The findings emphasized the importance of determining reference intervals for avian blood cholinesterase activity at the species level.

Manual restraint in birds of prey is required for many veterinary and research procedures. To investigate the effects of handling stress on physiologic parameters in raptorial birds, 8 red-tailed hawks (Buteo jamaicensis) were manually restrained over a 15-minute period. Respiratory rate (RR), heart rate (HR), and cloacal temperature were monitored over time and recorded at defined intervals during the experiment. The effect of hooding on physiologic variables was also evaluated in a complete crossover design. Both RR and HR decreased significantly during the 15-minute restraint period (HR, −80 ± 101.4 beats/min [bpm], [P < .01]; RR, −17.5 ± 22.6 breaths/min, [P < .05]). Hooded birds had significantly lower HRs and RRs at 15 minutes of restraint (HR: 232.5 ± 26 bpm, [P < .037]; RR: 33.1 ± 6.7 breaths/min, [P < .05]) compared to birds restrained without a hood (HR: 280 ± 74.1 bpm; RR: 51.5 ± 28.8 breaths/min). Cloacal temperature increased significantly in all manually restrained birds ( 2.2 ± 0.7°C, [P < .01]), with a comparable increase in hooded and nonhooded birds. In this study of the effects of manual restraint on red-tailed hawks, hooding versus nonhooding amplified the decrease in HR and RR but had no effect on stress-induced hyperthermia.

Sixteen cases of cloacal prolapse in raptors were reviewed in this study. Colonic prolapse was the most common presentation (56% of cases). Red-tailed hawks (Buteo jamaicensis) were overrepresented, comprising 66% of colonic prolapse cases. In cases of colonic prolapse, postsurgical stricture formation was a commonly identified complication after resection and anastomosis of the colon. A novel technique was used in 2 cases of colonic prolapse, in which sterile, semirigid rubber tubing was placed in the distal colon and removed per-cloaca at the end of the procedure; this facilitated a secure, fluid-tight anastomosis while maintaining sufficient intestinal lumen. Oviductal prolapse (31% of cases) was associated with the most guarded prognosis (40% treatment success). Cloacoliths were treated successfully in 2 birds (13% of cases) by minimally invasive per-cloacal manual removal.

Leiomyosarcoma is a malignant tumor arising from the smooth muscle of any soft tissue. Occurrence of this tumor in the skeletal muscles is rare. A 6-year-old Larry hen was examined because of lameness in one leg. A firm mass was palpable in its right thigh muscle, and radiographs showed extensive involvement of the surrounding soft tissues. The chicken was euthanatized. At postmortem examination, the primary tumor in the thigh skeletal muscles was firm and pink on its cut surface, and metastatic nodules were observed in the liver, spleen, kidneys, heart, and lungs. On histopathologic examination, the primary mass consisted of elongated spindle cells with eosinophilic cytoplasm and blunt-end nuclei arranged as interwoven bundles. Malignancy of the tumor was determined by the presence of pleomorphism, bizarre cells, and high numbers of mitotic figures. Immunohistochemical staining was positive for vimentin, desmin, and α-smooth muscle actin but negative for myogenin. Leiomyosarcoma was diagnosed based on the histopathologic and immunohistochemical findings. To our knowledge, this is the first report in a fowl of leiomyosarcoma in the skeletal muscle with widespread metastasis to other organs.

An 18-year-old female Bali mynah (Leucopsar rothschildi) was presented for polyphagia, weight loss, and incoordination. Diabetes mellitus was diagnosed based on the history and clinical findings, including persistent hyperglycemia with concurrent hypoinsulinemia and glucosuria. A treatment protocol was developed that led to improvement of clinical signs and management of hyperglycemia over several months. Because of the advanced age of the animal, difficulty in maintaining euglycemia, and the stress of handling and treatment, euthanasia was elected 167 days after initial presentation. At postmortem examination, no pancreatic lesions were detected histologically that would account for the diabetes mellitus. To our knowledge this is the first reported case of diabetes mellitus and clinical management of this condition in a passerine species.

A 2-month-old Pacific parrotlet (Forpus coelestis) was presented for assessment following a traumatic injury to the right wing that resulted in persistent swelling and inflammation. Six weeks postinjury the bird underwent surgical resection of a large hemorrhagic cavitated mass that had formed at the site of the original injury and a second, smaller mass on the body in direct contact with the wing mass. Histopathology of the wing mass confirmed a diagnosis of hemangiosarcoma. While commonly diagnosed in domestic species, hemangiosarcoma is uncommonly reported in avian species. To the authors' knowledge, this is the first report of hemangiosarcoma in a Pacific parrotlet and describes the development of hemangiosarcoma in a psittacine bird following trauma-induced inflammation.

An unsexed, 16-year-old blue-and-gold macaw (Ara ararauna) was presented for evaluation of rapidly growing subcutaneous masses at the left tibiotarso-tarsometatarsal joint. Results of incisional biopsy were diagnostic for an intermediate-grade soft-tissue sarcoma. A distal-femoral amputation was performed and the leg was submitted for histopathology. Histopathologic examination confirmed the biopsy diagnosis and revealed neoplastic spread into the bone marrow cavity of the tibiotarsus. Excisional margins were complete. The macaw recovered and did well until it died suddenly 32 months after surgery. At necropsy, death was attributed to acute hepatic hemorrhage. No recurrence or metastasis of the sarcoma was identified.

A 20-year-old, female African grey parrot (Psittacus erithacus erithacus) was examined because of ataxia and weakness. Radiographs were unremarkable, and results of a complete blood cell count revealed leukocytosis and heterophilia. Because of poor response to therapy with meloxicam, doxycycline, and enrofloxacin; deteriorating condition; and poor prognosis, the parrot was euthanatized. Postmortem examination revealed 2 dark red nodules in the liver. No grossly visible mass was observed in the syrinx. Histologic examination of the liver and syrinx revealed similar foci of round, oval, and polygonal cells exhibiting severe pleomorphism, with poorly demarcated cytoplasmic borders and moderate amounts of eosinophilic cytoplasm containing brown to black granules (melanin). The mitotic index was 15. The presence of melanin pigment is consistent with a diagnosis of melanoma at both sites. The multifocal distribution and intravascular invasion indicate metastasis; however, the site of origin was unknown. To our knowledge, this is the first recorded case of melanoma in an avian syrinx.

A 20-year-old, female Catalina macaw (Ara ararauna × Ara macao) was presented with bilateral uveitis and hyphema. The hyphema initially improved with 0.12% prednisolone acetate ophthalmic drops (1 drop OU q4h for 7 days), but the hyphema recurred after the drops were tapered. The bird subsequently developed inappetance, weight loss, regurgitation, and lethargy and was euthanatized 24 days after initial presentation. Necropsy revealed marked splenomegaly and hepatomegaly, with significant mucosal ulcerations of the proventriculus and petechiation associated with both kidneys. Histopathologic examination revealed multicentric lymphoma, with neoplastic cells observed in ocular, splenic, hepatic, renal, proventricular, intestinal, pancreatic, and choanal tissue. Neoplastic lymphocytes effaced the iris, ciliary body, and the choroid of the eyes, and neoplastic lymphocytes were attached to the corneal endothelium and infiltrated the sclera, episclera, and conjunctivae. Immunohistochemical results indicated that the neoplastic lymphocytes were CD3 and CD79a⁻, which is consistent with T-cell lymphoma.

A 2-year-old, egg-laying maroon-bellied conure (Pyrrhura frontalis) was referred for treatment of bilateral femoral fractures believed to be secondary to recent egg laying and nutritional and husbandry deficiencies. On radiographs, all skeletal components were diffusely osteopenic, precluding surgical fixation. A novel device to stabilize the bilateral femoral fractures was manufactured with polyvinyl chloride piping, which braced the bird's feet at the level of the perch and supported its upper body weight via a breast plate, thus maintaining the bird in a physiologically appropriate perching position. The conure was ambulatory and returned to normal function after 3 weeks of external coaptation with this device. After 6 weeks, callus formation was palpable over both fracture sites even though minimal bone remodeling was visible radiographically. This body splint device may present a viable alternative to euthanasia in select cases of bilateral femoral fractures in companion birds.

Nine Humboldt penguins (Spheniscus humboldti), between 1 and 1.5 years old and kept at Zoo Dresden, developed local and systemic infections with various opportunistic pathogens within a period of 4 months. Affected birds died peracutely without preceding symptoms or showed various clinical signs, including separation from conspecifics, reduced food intake, lethargy, dyspnea, swelling of the salt glands, and ocular discharge. One bird showed central nervous signs, including seizures. Pathologic examination of deceased birds revealed severe necrotizing inflammation of the mucous membranes and deep structures of the glottis, trachea, nasal sinus, and conchae and granulomatous inflammation of the salt glands. Further findings were airsacculitis, pneumonia, hepatitis, conjunctivitis, and myositis. Pseudomonas aeruginosa was the predominant pathogen in 7 cases. Six penguins died or were euthanatized, whereas 3 penguins that received systemic antibiotic treatment with tobramycin (10 mg/kg IM q24h for 10 days) showed rapid clinical improvement. Insufficient turnover rate of the filtration system, biofilm formation on pipe surfaces, and other factors are assumed to have promoted pathogen buildup in the pool water and subsequent infection.